
Class _ JjLnM 
Book_J\iL5A7_ 
Copyright N°_ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



LESSONS IN 
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



•r^2S^' 



LESSONS IN 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



BY 



GEORGE A. MIRICK, A.M. 

FORMERLY SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL OF THE STRONG DISTRICT, 
NEW HAVEN, CONN. 






' ' > ' > > J > 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1901 

All rights reserved 






THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

SEP. 7 1901 

^Copyright entry 

CLASS ^l^XXc. N*. 

COPY B. 



Copyright, iqoi, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith 
Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 



Uefctcateti tcr 
MY MOTHER 



PREFACE 

The study of English grammar in the elementary 
schools has been in disfavor in the past because the 
text-books and the teaching have been excessively tech- 
nical and mechanical. And yet with the passing of the 
grammar has come a sense of loss. 

This little book is the result of an attempt to simplify 
and rationalize the presentation of the subject. There 
has been a purpose constantly in mind to limit the dis- 
cussions to the principles which are fundamental in 
every language, and to such applications of those prin- 
ciples as are within the ability of pupils between the 
ages of thirteen and fifteen years to understand. 

The book is therefore by no means a complete trea- 
tise. On the other hand, it is believed that it gives such 
information and the opportunity for such training as 
the person in every-day life needs for the proper under- 
standing and use of his own language, and that it also 
furnishes an adequate preparation for the study of 
foreign languages. 

These Lessons have taken shape in the classroom. 
Many of the difficulties usually found in text-books of 
this class will not be found here, because they have 



viii PREFACE 

proved to be a cause of confusion to the pupils. A 
year's work is here laid out, and it is best adapted to 
the last year of the grammar grades. 

The peculiar features of the book are : — 

First The reduction of all the grammatical relations 
to four kinds. (See Table of Contents.) 

Second. The placing of that material which should 
be presented by the teacher in a place apart (" Notes 
and Discussions"). This leaves the pupil's grammar a 
unit, free from intrusive notes and from the necessity 
of distracting omissions. 

Third. The carefully graded exercises. Such exer- 
cises should be simple enough to illustrate the principle 
clearly ; varied enough to emphasize the principle as 
distinct from particular applications ; and numerous 
enough to give the mind substantial training in distin- 
guishing each principle. 

Fourth. The systematic use of original composition, 
or application of knowledge, as a test of the possession 
of that knowledge. 

Fifth. The treatment of word, phrase, and clause 
together when considering grammatical relations. 

Sixth. The fundamental purpose, not the acquisition 
of grammatical knowledge, but the training of the mind 
to deal with grammatical problems. 

This is the only text-book on English grammar, so 
far as the author knows, that has been written from the 
standpoint of the mental activity of the student. Obser- 
vation, comparison, judgment, expression, are so called 



PREFACE ix 

into activity that the resultant is an increased command 
over the mental powers. 

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Miss Caro- 
lyn Merchant and Miss Sarah E. Wright, teachers in 
Strong School, New Haven, Connecticut, for valuable 
suggestions which have helped in simplifying and clari- 
fying the text and exercises. I am also under obliga- 
tion to Mr. Frank H. Beede, Superintendent of Schools 
in New Haven, Connecticut, to Mr. Frederick S. Cutter, 
Principal of the Peabody School, Cambridge, Massachu- 
setts, for their sympathetic criticisms, and to my wife 
for her constant inspiration and practical help in the 
writing of this book. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface vii 

PART I 

GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS 

Introductory Chapter on Phrasing 

First Lesson. Reading Lesson in Phrasing . . . . . 2 

Second Lesson. Reading Lesson in Phrasing . . . . . 3 

Third Lesson. Punctuation . 4 

Fourth Lesson. Punctuation . 5 

Fifth" Lesson. Correcting Punctuation 5 

Sixth Lesson. Grammatical Phrases . . . . . 6 

CHAPTER I. The Main Verb 

First Lesson. Inductive . .8 

Second Lesson. Selecting Predicate Verbs in Sentences and Clauses 9 

Third Lesson. Classification of Sentences and their Verbs . . 10 

Fourth Lesson. Selecting Main Verbs in Composition . . 11 

CHAPTER II. The Subject Relation 

First Lesson. Inductive 12 

Second Lesson. Using Words as Subjects 13 

Third Lesson. Selecting Phrases and Clauses as Subjects . . 14 
Fourth Lesson. Selecting Main Verbs and Subjects in Compo- 
sition . . . . . . . . . . 15 



xii CONTENTS 



CHAPTER III. The Object Relation 



First Lesson. Inductive 16 

Second Lesson. Using Words as Objects 18 

Third Lesson. Selecting Phrases and Clauses as Objects . . 18 

Fourth Lesson. Using Phrases and Clauses as Objects ... 19 

FiFrH Lesson. Selecting Objects in Sentences .... 19 

Sixth Lesson. Selecting Objects in Composition .... 20 

Review of Main Verb. Subject. Object 

First Lesson. Review Questions 21 

Second Lesson. Selecting in Sentences . . . . . 23 

Third Lesson. Selecting in Composition 23 



CHAPTER IV. Modifying Relations 

A. Adjective Modifiers 



First Lesson. Inductive. Word, Phrase, Clause Modifiers . 
Second Lesson. Selecting and Classifying Adjective Modifiers 

Third Lesson. Using Word Modifiers 

Fourth Lesson. Using Word, Phrase, Clause Modifiers 
Fifth Lesson. Selecting Adjective Modifiers in Composition 

B. Adverbial Modifiers 

First Lesson. Inductive. Word, Phrase, Clause Modifiers . 
Second Lesson. Selecting Phrase and Clause Modifiers of Verbs 
Third Lesson. Selecting Modifiers of Adjectives 
Fourth Lesson. Selecting Modifiers of Adverbs 
Fifth Lesson. Using Adverbial Modifiers 
Sixth Lesson. Using Adverbial Modifiers 
Seventh Lesson. Selecting Adverbial Modifiers in Composition 
Review of Modifiers 



24 

25 
26 

27 
27 



28 
19 
30 
3i 
3i 
32 
32 
33 



CHAPTER V. Connective Relations 

A. Coordinate Connectives 

First Lesson. Inductive 34 

Second Lesson. Using Coordinate Connectives with Words, 

Phrases, Clauses 35 



CONTENTS xiii 

B. Subordinate Connectives 
Subordinate Conjunctions 

PAGE 

First Lesson. Inductive 36 

Second Lesson. Using Subordinate Conjunctions .... 36 

Third Lesson. Inductive. Main and Subordinate Clauses . . 37 

Prepositions 

First Lesson. Inductive . . 38 

Second Lesson. Using Prepositions . . . . • • 39 

Third Lesson. Selecting Prepositional Phrases .... 39 

Relative Pronouns 

First Lesson. Inductive 40 

Second Lesson. Using Relative Pronouns . . . . . 41 

Third Lesson. Selecting Relative Pronouns : Their Construction . 41 

Fourth Lesson. Selecting Relative Pronouns : Their Construction 42 

Relative Adjectives 43 

Relative Adverbs 43 

C. Connective Verbs 

First Lesson. Inductive 44 

Second Lesson. Using Copula Verbs 45 

Third Lesson. Selecting Copula Verbs, Predicate Nominative and 

Adjective . • . 45 

Review of Modifying and Connective Relations 

First Lesson. Review Questions 46 

Second Lesson. Selecting in Sentences 47 

Third Lesson. Selecting in Composition 48 



Analysis of Sentences 

First Lesson. Simple Sentences . 

Second Lesson. Simple Sentences 

Third Lesson. Compound Sentences 

Fourth Lesson. Complex Sentences 

Fifth Lesson. Complex Sentences 

Sixth Lesson. Sentences in Poetic Composition 

Seventh Lesson. Sentences in Prose Composition 



50 
5 1 
5i 
5i 

52 
52 
53 



XIV 



CONTENTS 



PART II 



INFLECTIONS 



CHAPTER I. Declension of Nouns 



First Lesson. Declension . . '. 
Second Lesson, Number *.„... 
Third Lesson. , Possessive Case ..... 
Fourth Lesson. Exercises in forming the Possessive Case 
Fifth Lesson. Exercises in correcting Possessive Case Forms 
Sixth Lesson. Exercises in Declension .... 

Seventh Lesson. Gender 

Eighth Lesson. Person ...... 

Ninth Lesson. Parsing Nouns ..... 



54 
55 
57 
57 
59 
6o 
6o 
6i 
62 



CHAPTER II. Declension of Pronouns 



First Lesson. Personal Pronouns . 
Second Lesson. Exercises in Explanation of Use 
Third Lesson. Exercises in Use . 
Fourth Lesson. Exercises illustrating Use 
Fifth Lesson. Exercises in correcting Use 
Sixth Lesson. Relative Pronouns . 
Seventh Lesson. Exercises in Use 
Eighth Lesson. Exercises illustrating Use 
Ninth Lesson. Exercises in correcting Use 
Tenth Lesson. Interrogative Pronouns 
Eleventh Lesson. Exercises in Use 
Twelfth Lesson. Exercises in correcting Use 
Thirteenth Lesson. Demonstrative Pronouns 
Fourteenth Lesson. Parsing Pronouns 



63 
64 

65 
66 
66 
67 
68 
69 
69 
70 
70 
7i 
7i 
72 



CHAPTER III. Comparison 



First Lesson. . Adjectives. Inductive . . . . . -74 

Second Lesson. Exercises in forming the Comparative Degree . 76 

Third Lesson. Exercises in forming the Superlative Degree . . 76 

Fourth Lesson. Exercises in Comparing . . . . 77 



CONTENTS xv 

PAGE 

Fifth Lesson. Declension and Use ...... 78 

Sixth Lesson. Parsing Adjectives . . 79 

Seventh Lesson. Adverbs. Their Use and Exercises in correct- 
ing Use 80 

Eighth Lesson. Parsing Adverbs .82 

CHAPTER IV. Conjugation of Verbs 

First Lesson. Conjugation of Verb, Love -83 

Second Lesson. Principal Parts. Regular and Irregular Verbs . 84 
Third Lesson. Number, Person, Exercises ..... 87 
Fourth Lesson. Tense. Simple and Compound Exercises . . 87 
Fifth Lesson. Mode. Exercises ....... 90 

Sixth Lesson. Voice. Exercises 91 

Seventh Lesson. Exercises in changing Voice .... 92 

Eighth Lesson. Infinitives -94 

Ninth Lesson. Participles . . . .• . . -95 

Tenth Lesson. Auxiliary Verbs .97 

Eleventh Lesson. Exercises in selecting Auxiliary and Main Verbs 102 
Twelfth Lesson. Correction of Errors in Use of Verbs . . 103 

Thirteenth Lesson. Parsing Verbs in Sentences .... 104 
Fourteenth Lesson. Parsing Verbs in Poetry .... 105 

Review of Inflections 

First Lesson. Review Questions ....... 105 

Second Lesson. Exercises in Parsing 108 

Third Lesson. Exercises in correcting Errors . . . .110 

Notes and Discussions 112 

Appendix. Additional Exercises for Analysis and Parsing . 139 
Index 153 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Part I 

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON PHRASING 

In the expression of thoughts, words arrange them- 
selves naturally in groups. The student is supposed to 
be already familiar with the sentence, which is that 
group of words expressing a complete thought, so that 
he no longer talks in general conversation and in reci- 
tation or writes in a rambling manner with an excess of 
ands and buts. He has acquired a command of this 
most important word grouping, and expresses his ideas 
.in well-defined sentences. 

Grammar begins at this point. It deals with the rela- 
tions of the words in the sentence. A study of these 
relations reveals the fact that these words arrange them- 
selves in smaller groups, and that the smaller groups 
often divide themselves again. We must not think 
that we make these groupings. They make themselves 
under the influence of the thoughts we are expressing, 
just as the particles of iron filings arrange themselves 
under the influence of magnetism. 

Our business as students of grammar is to discover 
what these natural groupings are. To do this requires 
a great deal of training. For this reason the first chap- 



2 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

ter is given up to the discussion of the sense or gram- 
matical grouping of words, and the training here gained 
should lead to more intelligent reading and a clearer 
style in writing, as well as a better insight into the object 
and method of the work that is before us. 

FIRST LESSON 

In the following sentences the words are grouped 
according to the sense. Read each sentence slowly, 
making pauses between the groups according to the 
breaks. 

i. With a single drop of ink for a mirror, the Egyp- 
tian sorcerer undertakes to reveal to any chance comer 
far-reaching visions of the past. 

2. I protest that if some great power would agree 
to make me always think what is true and do what 

is right on condition of being turned into a sort of 
clock and wound up every morning, I should in- 
stantly close with the offer. 

3. Good books like good friends are few and 
chosen \ the more select, the more enjoyable. 

4. A good novel is a valuable acquisition, and it 
supplies companionship of a pleasant kind. 

5. The liner she's a lady, an' she never looks nor 

'eeds — 
The man-of-war 's her 'usband, an' 'e gives 'er all 

she needs : 
But oh, the little cargo boats, that sail the wet 

seas roun', 
They're just the same as you an' me a plyin' up 
an' down. 

The groups of words into which a sentence may be 
divided are called phrases. 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON PHRASING 3 

A phrase may be defined as a group of words, part of 
a sentence, not having a subject and predicate, — that is, 
bound together by a sense relation. 

There can be no good reading, either aloud or silent, 
unless the reader sees the words in their sense groups, or 
phrases, and makes the pauses that the sense demands. 
It is for this reason that you have been urged, from the 
time you began to read, to "look ahead." 

SECOND LESSON 

Read slowly the following extracts, making the proper 
pauses between the phrases. 

In the first selection the phrasing is indicated by 
dashes. It should be understood, however, that each 
reader has the right to group the words as his own 
interpretation of the meaning determines. You should 
express the thought of the passage as you understand it. 

In the second selection each is to make the phrases 
.without assistance. 

FROM TOM BROWN AT RUGBY 
A 

The morning — had dawned — bright and warm, — to the 
intense relief — of many an anxious youngster — up betimes — 
to mark the signs — of the weather. — The eleven — went 
down — before breakfast — for a plunge — in the cold bath — 
in the corner — of the close. — The ground — was in splendid 
order — and soon after ten o'clock, — before spectators — had 
rrrived — all was ready, — and two of the Lord's men — took 
their places — at the wicket; — the school — with the usual 
liberality — of young hands — having put their adversaries — 
in first. — Old Bailey — stepped up — to the wicket, — and 
called play, — and the match — was begun. 



4 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

B 

And they all find that they have got their work to do now ; 
the newcomer's hitting is tremendous, and his running like a 
flash of lightning. He is never in his ground except when his 
wicket is down. Nothing in the whole game so trying to boys ; 
he has stolen three byes in the first ten minutes, and Jack 
Raggles is furious, and begins throwing over savagely to the 
farther wicket, until he is sternly stopped by the captain. It is 
all that the young gentleman can do to keep his team steady, 
but he knows that everything depends on it, and faces his work 
bravely. The score creeps up to fifty, the boys begin to look 
blank, and the spectators, who are now mustering strong, are 
very silent. The ball flies off his bat to all parts of the field, 
and he gives no rest and no catches to any one. 

THIRD LESSON 

Proper punctuation also is a matter of phrasing. 
Punctuation marks occur only between plirases where 
there is a considerable break in the thought. Study the 
preceding sentences with this idea of punctuation in 
mind. Are there any marks of punctuation in the 
selection that in your judgment should be changed? 

Rewrite the following, arranging in the form of a 
letter and punctuating. Determine first the sentence 
groups, then the phrase groups. What are punctu- 
ation marks for? Name the five most important punc- 
tuation marks, and explain when each should be used. 

(A letter written by C. C. Felton, once president of Harvard Univer- 
sity. It is dated at Chester, England, on the 29th day of April, 1853.) 

We stayed in Liverpool one day only but I saw a good deal 
of the city and quite enough to understand its commercial 
importance I was amused interested and instructed every 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON PHRASING 5 

moment but one or two things struck me much the pleasant 
voices and low distinct pronunciation of all classes of people 
and the universal disposition to oblige on the other hand in the 
obscure streets the wretchedness and rags were deplorable the 
stolid looking little donkeys with their carts driven by just such 
ragamuffin boys as Dickens loves to describe who whacked 
them over the backs without exciting any other feeling in the 
shaggy little beasts than the most profound indifference made 
me laugh twenty times. 

FOURTH LESSON 

Rewrite the following, arranging in the form of a 
letter and punctuating : — 

(A letter written by the same writer as that in the Third Lesson, dated 
at Calais, France, the 8th day of June, 1853.) 

I left London this morning at half past nine o'clock for 
Dover and Calais having taken a ticket through to Paris we 
travelled through a delightful country in all the glory of early 
summer the green fields the blossoming trees the rose-bushes 
loaded with their glowing honors the day exquisite as heart 
could wish I felt regret at leaving friends in London some of 
whom I shall never see again but I knew that all the time 
allotted to England was spent and it was right to go the South 
of England is quite different from the Midland the East West 
or North its surface is marked and peculiar but at the same 
time thoroughly English. 

FIFTH LESSON 
Rewrite the following, correcting the punctuation : — 

MERCURY AND THE WOODMAN 

a woodman was working beside a deep river. When his axe 
slipped away From him into the water; as the axe was the, 
means by which he earned His daily bread, he was much 



6 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

distressed. While he was weeping upon the river bank. The 
god Mercury appeared to him. And inquired about the 
trouble he caused. A golden axe to appear on the water is 
that the one you lost he Asked, no " said the woodman " then 
the God caused a silver one to appear. And asked if this was 
his ? " the woodman again replied " no then Mercury caused 
the axe. Which was lost to appear " that is mine " cried the 
woodman as a reward for his honesty. Mercury gave him. 
The other two axes. 

SIXTH LESSON 

The lessons so far have been considering phrases. 
No attempt has been made to distinguish the different 
kinds of phrases. A list of some of the different kinds 
is here given. Do the best you can in explaining what 
is meant by each kind. 

i. A verb phrase. 

2. A subject phrase. 

3. An object phrase. 

4. An adjective phrase. 

5. An adverb phrase. 

6. A prepositional phrase. 

7. A participial phrase. 

8. An infinitive phrase. 

Tell what kind of a phrase each of the underlined 
groups is : — 

1. A man of wealth was here. 

2. The frightened horse has run away. 

3. The animal, growling fiercely, slunk off. 

4. My friend built a large house. 



5. The little birds were frozen by an early frost. 

6. The train moves very rapidly. 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON PHRASING 7 

7. The ice, melted by the snow, has disappeared. 

8. To fly is the desire of men. 

9. Men wish to fly. 

10. The way to fly has not been discovered. 

11. The boys went to the field to fly their kites. 

Give a list of ten prepositions. 

Make three sentences, each containing a prepositional 
adjective phrase; three sentences, each containing a 
prepositional adverbial phrase. 

Make three sentences, each containing a verb phrase. 

Make three sentences, each containing a present 
participial phrase ; three sentences, each containing a 
past participial phrase. 

Make three sentences, each containing an infinitive 
phrase. 

(In each of the above sentences underline the phrase.) 



CHAPTER I 

THE MAIN VERB 

A sentence may be compared with an arch. An arch 
has a keystone. Of what importance is this keystone ? 
The keystone in a sentence is the main verb. 

FIRST LESSON 

In the following sentences select the main verbs with 
the help of the teacher : — 

i. Dogs bark. 

2. Birds fly. 

3. Eagles are birds. • *> 

4. Tadpoles become frogs. 

5. Canary birds live in cages. 

6. Leaves serve the trees for lungs. 

7. Quadrupeds have four legs. 

8. Water plants grow faster than land plants. 

9. The ground does not need to rest. 

10. Crime costs much. 

1 1. Honesty will lead to success. 

12. Rome has been a powerful city in the past. 

13. The sisters were astonished when Cinderella had suc- 
ceeded in putting on the slipper. 

14. Napoleon has often been blamed for his ambition. 

15. Brave men have stood firm, when it was their duty to 
do so. 

In a declarative sentence, the main verb is that word 
or phrase that is used to make a statement. The main 



THE MAIN VERB 9 

verb of a declarative sentence is therefore called a predi- 
cate verb. 

SECOND LESSON 

In the following sentences select the predicate 
verbs : — 

i. God made the country. 

2. Man made the town. 

3. True nobility knows no fear. 

4. Education is the defence of nations. 

5. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 

6. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind. 

7. No wise man ever wished to be younger. 

8. Forbearance often ceases to be a virtue. 

9. That hat became her. 

10. The season seems to be backward. 

11. We have visited a large city. 

12. Science may be learned by rote, wisdom not. 

13. The charities of life are scattered everywhere. 
14, ' Every one should find some work to do. 

15. Books are needed, but yet not many books. 

In a compound or complex sentence, each member or 
clause has a main verb. 

16. He has not learned the lesson of life who does not every 
day surmount a fear. 

1 7. There is always room for a man of force, and he makes 
room for many. 

18. They never fail who die in a great cause. 

19. Blessed is he who has found his proper work. 

20. Charms strike the sight, but merit wins the soul. 

Compose ten declarative sentences. Let five have for 
the predicate verb a word. Let three have for the 



IO LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

predicate verb a phrase. Let two be compound" or 
complex sentences. In each of the above ten sen- 
tences underline the predicate verbs. 



THIRD LESSON 

The following sentences are imperative, interrogative, 
and exclamatory. 

Why must each of these sentences contain a main 
verb ? 

Why is it not possible in sentences of these three 
classes to call the main verb a predicate verb ? 

What might the main verb of an imperative sentence 
be called ? of an interrogative sentence ? of an exclama- 
tory sentence ? 

State what kind each 'of the following sentences is, 
and select the main verbs : — 

i. Am I my brother's keeper? 

2. Learn the luxury of doing good. 

3. Look before you leap. 

4. Drink, pretty creature, drink. 

5. Let the million-dollared ride ! 

6. How beautiful is this night ! 

7. Do you admire him ? 

8. Who has been the greatest American statesman? 

9. Was the War of 18 12 well managed? 
10. Bear up and steer right onward. 

Compose five imperative sentences, five interrogative 
sentences, and five exclamatory sentences. 

Underline in each sentence the predicate verb. 



THE MAIN VERB II 

FOURTH LESSON 

In the following selection, determine the class to 
which each sentence belongs, and make a list of the 
main verbs : — 

HANS IN LUCK 

Hans had served his master seven years. At last he said to 
him : "Master, my time is up. I would like to go home and 
see my mother. Give me my wages." 

The master. said : " You have been a good and faithful ser- 
vant, so your pay shall be handsome." Then he gave him a 
piece of silver as big as his head. 

Hans took out his handkerchief, put the piece of silver into 
it, hung it over his shoulder, and jogged off homeward. As he 
went lazily on, dragging one foot after the other, a man came 
in sight, trotting along gayly on a capital horse. 

" Ah," said Hans, aloud, " what a fine thing it is to ride on 
horseback ! There he sits as if he were at home in his chair. 
He trips against no stones, spares his shoes, and gets on he 
hardly' knows how." The horseman heard this, and said, 
' " Well, Hans, why do you go on foot then? " " Ah," said he, 
"I have this load to carry. To be sure it is silver, but it is so 
heavy that I cannot hold up my head, and it hurts my shoulder 
sadly." 

"What do you say to changing?" asked the horseman. " I 
will give you my horse, and you can give me your silver." 



CHAPTER II 

THE SUBJECT 

The part of the sentence next in importance to the 
main verb is the simple subject of the verb. 

The simple subject may be found in the following 
way. Find the main verb ; place who or ivhat before 
it, and the word phrase or clause that answers the ques- 
tion thus formed is the subject. 

c.e. Lord Chesterfield wrote letters on politeness to his son. 

In this sentence wrote* is the main verb. If who or 
what is placed before this verb, we have the question, 
Who or what wrote ? The answer given in the sentence 
is clearly " Lord Chesterfield wrote." The simple sub- 
ject of the verb, wrote, is therefore Lord Chesterfield. 

FIRST LESSON 

Select the simple subjects in the following sen- 
tences with the help of the teacher : — 

i. Air is a gas. 

2. We need physical strength. 

3. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 

4. Lincoln chopped wood in his early days. 

5. A farmer was ploughing his field. 

6. On a tree near by sat a black crow. 

7. " Nobody sent me," answered, they. 



THE SUBJECT 1 3 

8. Over the fences went the boys. 

9. There is snow in winter. 

10. Brightly glow the stars at night. 

11. Put not your trust in money. 

12. Bear up and steer right onward. 

13. Physician, heal thyself. 

14. Does your brother look like you? 

15. Why are you going away? 

16. Hark ! the trumpet sounds. 

17. To desire to excel is a worthy ambition. 

18. To rule, well has not always been the wish of kings. 

19. To discern the faults of others, and to forget one's own, 
is the characteristic of folly. 

20. To be good is to be happy. 

2 1 . You and I may give advice, but no one can give con- 
duct. 

22. Men and women, boys and girls, should live happily 
together. 

23. " God reigns and the government at Washington still 
lives," was said by Garfield. 

24.. Whatever is good has a use. 

25. What one has in his head cannot be stolen from him. 

The subject in a sentence or clause is that about which 
the main verb makes an assertion. 

The simple subject is the simplest (briefest) answer 
that the sentence supplies to the test question. 

Sometimes the subject of a verb is not expressed. 
In an imperative sentence the subject, you, is always 
understood. 

SECOND LESSON 

(a) Compose five sentences each of which shall con- 
tain a common noun as subject. 



14 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

{/?) Compose five sentences each of which shall 
contain a personal pronoun as subject. 

(c) Compose five sentences each of which shall 
contain a demonstrative pronoun as subject. 

(d) Compose five sentences each of which shall 
contain a proper noun as a subject. 

(e) Compose five sentences each of which shall 
contain a compound subject. 

(f) Compose five sentences in each of which the 
subject comes after the main verb. 

In each of the above sentences underline the simple 
subject. 

THIRD LESSON 

Select the subject in each of the following sentences : — 

i. To rule is the wish of many, ^ 

2. To write well requires hard work. 

3. Giving is better than receiving. 

4. Reading too many books is not wholesome. 

5. Running rapidly is good exercise. 

6. To deceive one's friends is base. 

7. To speak politely is the part of a gentleman. 

8. To conquer an enemy requires courage. 

9. What it is right to do is not always clear. . 

10. That you ought not to read in the dark is evident. 

11. To become an artist was Raphael's ambition. 

12. When to tell the truth should never be in doubt. 

13. " Why do you not go? " was the question. 

14. "The Building of the Ship," is the name of a poem. 

15. " Know thyself," was a saying of Socrates. 

The above sentences illustrate the use of phrases and 
clauses as subjects. Phrases and clauses, when used in 



THE SUBJECT 1 5 

this relation, are called subject phrases and subject 
clauses. 

Two kinds of phrases will be noticed — infinitive 
phrases and verbal noun phrases. (Verbal nouns are 
often called gerunds, a term borrowed from the Latin.) 

In the above sentences determine which are the infini- 
tive, the verbal noun, and clause subjects. 

FOURTH LESSON 
Select the main verbs and subjects in the following : — 

hans in luck {continued) 

"With all my heart," said Hans. "But I will tell you one 
thing — you will have a weary task to drag it along." The 
horseman got off, took the silver, helped Hans up, put the 
bridle into his hand, and said, "When you want to go very fast, 
you must smack your lips and cry, i Jip.' " 

Hans was delighted as he sat on his horse, and rode merrily 
on. After a time he thought he should like to go a little faster, 
so he smacked his lips and said, "Jip." Away went the horse 
full gallop. Hans held on tightly, but he was soon thrown off 
and lay in the ditch by the roadside. His horse would have 
run away, if a cowherd had not stopped it. Hans soon came 
to himself, and got upon his legs again. He was greatly vexed, 
and said to the cowherd : " This riding is no joke when a man 
gets on a beast like this, that stumbles and flings him off, and 
tries to break his neck. However, I'm off now for good. I 
like your cow a great deal better. I could walk along at my 
ease behind her, and have milk, butter, and cheese every day 
into the bargain. What would I give to have such a cow ! " 



CHAPTER III 
THE OBJECT 

Verbs that express action often have a noun (or 
pronoun), a phrase, or a clause, to show the person or 
thing toward which the action is directed, or in which 
it terminates. Such a word, phrase, or clause is called 
the object of the verb. 

The object may be found in the following way: 
Select the main verb. Place whom or what after it, 
and the word, phrase, or clause that answers the 
question thus formed is the object. 

c.e. Lord Chesterfield wrote letters on politeness to his son. 

In this sentence wrote is the main verb. If zvhom or 
what is placed after the verb, we have the question, 
Wrote whom or what ? The answer given in the 
sentence is clearly " wrote letters." The simple object 
is therefore letters. 

The simple object is the simplest (briefest) answer 
that the sentence supplies to the test question. 

FIRST LESSON 

Select the simple objects in the following sentences 
with the help of the teacher : — 

i. John had a whip. 
2. Air contains oxygen. 
16 



THE OBJECT \y 

3. We all liked him. 

4. The whole nation reveres Lincoln. 

5. A spider saved Robert Bruce. 

6. The noblest mind the best contentment has. 

7. Us the beauty of the sunset pleases. 

8. Bismarck gave to Germany her unity. 

9. But knowledge to their eyes her ample page did ne'er 
unroll. 

10. Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. 

11. Let not ambition mock their useful toil. 

12. Pass the watchword down the line. 

13. What shall we have for dinner? 

14. Whom do you fear? 

15. Why do you ask that question? 

16. An unhappy boy wishes to leave home. 

17. Alexander loved to contend in battle and he conquered 
the world. 

18. The astronomer tries to reach the stars. 

19. In a log schoolhouse Lincoln learned to read, to write, 
and to cipher. 

- 20. My friend will help you and me. 

21. He says what he means. 

22. He would like what others have. 

23. We hear that your efforts failed. 

24. A careful person sees that everything goes well. 

25. That the earth revolves, we know. 

A verb that has an object is called a transitive verb. 
A verb that expresses action is transitive only when it 
has an object. 

c.e. The man drives a horse (transitive). 

The man drives when it is pleasant (intransitive). 



1 8 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

SECOND LESSON 

(a) Compose five sentences, each of which shall 
contain a common noun as object. 

(Remember that only action verbs take objects.) 

(&) Compose five sentences, each of which shall 
contain a personal pronoun as object. 

(c) Compose five sentences, each of which shall 
contain a demonstrative pronoun as object. 

(d) Compose five sentences, each of which shall 
contain an interrogative pronoun as object. 

(e) Compose five sentences, each of which shall 
contain a proper noun as object. 

(f) Compose five sentences, each of which shall 
contain a compound object. 

In each of the above sentences underline the simple 
object. . 

THIRD LESSON 

Select the object in each of the following sentences : — 

i. He learns to write. 

2. A genius desires to lose himself in his work. 

3. Remember to do it. 

4. One ought to speak politely. 

5. People dislike to be deceived. 

6. We enjoy what we make for ourselves. 

7. A person often desires what he cannot have. 

8. The criminal confessed that he did wrong. 

9. The poet wrote, " Will you walk into my parlor? " 

10. Socrates said, " Know thyself." 

11. Personal glory Napoleon sought throughout his life. 



THE OBJECT 1 9 

12. What should be done in an emergency, a person cannot 
always decide. 

13. The American flag you may see on every ocean. 

14. "Why do you not go?" he asked. 

15. Your country love, its laws obey. 

The above sentences illustrate the use of phrases and 
clauses as objects. Phrases and clauses, when used in 
this relation, are called objective (or object) phrases .and 
objective (or object) clauses. 

These sentences also illustrate the fact that the object 
of a verb may be placed before, as well as after, the 
verb. (Grammatical relations and values are not 
governed by place in the sentence.) 

FOURTH LESSON 

(a) Compose five sentences, in each of which an 
infinitive shall be used as object. 

(b) Compose five sentences, in each of which a clause 
..shairbe used as object. 

(c) Compose five sentences in which the object shall 
be placed before the verb. 

Underline the object in each of the above sentences. 

FIFTH LESSON 

(This lesson should be omitted with classes that can pass to the Sixth 
Lesson without farther drill.) 

Select the objects in the following sentences: — 

1. Electricity in the air causes lightning. 

2. The Americans conquered at Manila. 

3. Colorado has many silver mines. 

4. To your sick friend take a basket of fruit. 



20 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

5. Every boy should have a hobby. 

6. What do you wish? 

7. Choose your life work and friends carefully. 

8. Look about you sharply. 

9. We enjoy the stars and the moon. 

10. Will you present my compliments to your father? 

11. William Tell longed to slay his enemy. 

12. General Grant determined what he would do. 

13. General Grant determined to march forward. 

14. He asked, "When will you come?" 

15. He asked when you would come. 

16. He asked why they went. 

17. He asked what they wished. 

18. He asked how much it cost. 

19. He said that he would go. 

20. He said, " I will go." 

SIXTH LESSON 
Select the objects in the following : — 

(No matter what grammatical fact you wish to know in a sentence, 
always, (1) find the main verb, (2) find the subject, (3) find the object.) 

hans in luck {continued) 

The cowherd said that he loved his cow. " But I will 
change her for your horse," said he. 

" Done," said Hans, merrily. The cowherd mounted the 
horse, and rode her rapidly away. Hans drove his cow quietly 
and thought that he had a good bargain. 

" If I have only a piece of bread — and I certainly shall get 
that — I can eat my butter and cheese with it. When I am 
thirsty, I can milk my cow and drink the milk. What can I 
want more? " 

THE HEN AND THE GOLDEN EGGS 

Once upon a time a man owned a hen, which laid every day 
a golden egg. He supposed that the hen contained a great 



THE OBJECT 21 

lump of gold. So he killed her to get the treasure. What he 
found surprised him. No gold he saw, only flesh and bones. 
The foolish man hoped to become rich at once, but he lost the 
profit which before he had daily received. 



REVIEW OF MAIN VERB, SUBJECT, OBJECT 

FIRST LESSON 

1. What is a sentence ? 

2. Use a sentence to make a statement. 

3. What kind of a sentence do you call it ? 

4. Use a sentence to give a command. 

5. What kind of a sentence do you call it? 

6. Use a sentence to ask a question. 

. 7. What kind of a sentence do you call it ? 

8. Use a sentence to make an exclamation. 

9. What kind of a sentence do you call it ? 

10., These four names of sentences, classify them 
according to what ? 

11. Sentences are also classified according to their 
structure. What is a simple sentence ? 

12. What is a compound sentence ? 

13. What is a complex sentence ? 

14. Give an example of a simple sentence. 

15. Give an example of a compound sentence. 

16. Give an example of a complex sentence. 

17. Is a building ever classified according to struc- 
ture, and also according to use ? Illustrate. 

18. What other things do you think of that are 
doubly classified. 

19. How does a sentence differ from a phrase ? 



22 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

20. How does a sentence differ from a clause ? 

21. How does a clause differ from a phrase ? 

22. What is the meaning of grammatical relation ? 

23. What is the central grammatical point in a sen- 
tence ? 

24. What is the next most important point? 

25. Why is the subject more important than the 
object? 

26. What is the difference between the simple sub- 
ject and the complete subject? 

27. How do you find the subject? 

28. Illustrate the fact that the subject may be a 
word, a phrase, or a clause. 

29. How do you recognize an infinitive ? 

30. Use an infinitive as subject. 

31. Use a verbal noun, phrase as subject. 

32. How do you find the object of a verb ? 

33. Illustrate the fact that the object may be a word, 
a phrase, or a clause. 

34. Only what kind of verbs take objects? 

35. Use an infinitive as object. 

36. Use a verbal noun phrase as object. 

37. What is the derivation of each of the following 
words — verb, noun, pronoun, predicate, transitive ? 

38. Illustrate the fact that the same verb may be 
sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive. 

39. What is the nature of a participle ? 

40. What is the sign of a present participle ? 

41. Are all words ending in ing participles? Illus- 
trate. 



THE OBJECT 23 

SECOND LESSON 

Select the predicate verbs, subjects, and objects in the 
following sentences : — 

1. He wanted to enjoy life. 

2. We hear that he is a wise man. 

3. They asked him a question (double object). 

4. The lady taught the boy a lesson. 

5. The astronomers said, "The world is round." 

6. To pile wood high is a difficult task. 

7. Piling. wood high is a difficult task. 

8. To speak well is a worthy ambition. 

9. Being at war works destruction. 

10. He built what he called a house. 

11. They decided that you should go. 

12. I ask why you go. 

13. The traveller heard that the train had gone. 

14. " It might have been " has a sad meaning. 

15. Whoever is prudent is respected. 

THIRD LESSON 

Select the predicate verb, subjects, and objects in the 
following : — 

THE ARAB AND HIS CAMEL 

On a cold night an Arab lay down in his tent. His camel 
pushed his head into the tent and asked to be allowed to warm 
his nose. The master granted the request. Soon the camel 
wanted to warm his neck. He allowed the camel to do this 
also. " I should take little room if I should put my forelegs 
inside," said the animal. " Do it," said the Arab. " May I 
not stand wholly within ? " added the camel. " Yes, I pity yon. 
The tent shall hold us both," replied the kind-hearted master. 

The Arab soon found that the camel occupied all the tent. 
So he withdrew and left it to him. 

Resist the beginning of evil. 



CHAPTER IV 

MODIFIERS 

A. Adjective Modifiers 

FIRST LESSON 

In the following sentences select, with the aid of the 
teacher, the words, phrases, and clauses that make more 
definite or modify the meaning of the nouns and pro- 
nouns. State in each case whether the noun or pro- 
noun is pointed out or modified? 

i. The national capital is a beautiful building. 

2. A horse ran away. • * 

3. My horse won the race. 

4. John's horse did not run. 

5. That man possesses much wealth. 

6. His hat did not fit. 

7. Whose fault was it? 

8. Arnold, the traitor, died alone. 

9. Napoleon won many victories. 

10. The English language is taught in the best French 
schools. 

11. The gold ring was lost. 

12. A man of courage gains renown. 

13. That woman, writing a letter, cannot speak. 

14. The soldiers, wounded in battle, marched by. 

15. He has a son to be proud of. 

16. The government of a city should be in the hands of 
wise men. 

24 



MODIFIERS 25 

17. People who pay their debts are trusted. 

18. A fisherman generally loses the largest fish that bites 
his hook. 

19. He has a friend whom many people admire. 

20. Those who had taken the train reached their destina- 
tion. 

In the above sentences the modifiers are related to 
nouns or pronouns. Such modifiers are called adjective 
modifiers. 

What name might be given to a phrase that modifies 
a noun or pronoun ? 

What name might be given to a clause that modifies 
a noun or pronoun ? 

Adjective word modifiers may be classed as follows : 
articles, descriptive, demonstrative, interrogative, indefi- 
nite, numeral, participial, possessive (nouns and pro- 
nouns used to modify). 

Select an example of each kind from the above sen- 
tencesi 

When a noun is used in apposition it is in reality 
being used as an adjective. (Give examples of this 
case.) 

SECOND LESSON 

In the following sentences select the adjective modi- 
fiers, state what noun or pronoun is modified, and to 
which class each modifier belongs : — 

1. Silk thread has much strength. 

2. A man's dress often displays his character. 

3. Good manners win many valuable friends. 

4. What house do we see ? 

5. That farmer owns a large pasture. 



26 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

6. The dews of evening are falling. 

7. The Christmas of the olden time was a merry day. 

8. Little bird with bosom red, 
Welcome to my little shed. 

9. The birds, singing in the trees, make the spring joyous. 

10. Buildings, placed upon strong foundations, will stand. 

1 1 . An army of ants will attack large and ferocious animals. 

12. Many stars are thought to be other worlds. 

13. Few people who love beautiful things disregard flowers. 

14. A person who can help himself has the best chance to 
win success. 

15. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

THIRD LESSON 

1. Make a list of twenty descriptive adjectives. 

2. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
use of descriptive adjectives. 

3. Make a list of all the demonstrative adjectives. 

4. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
use of the demonstrative adjectives. 

5. Make a list of all the interrogative adjectives. 

6. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
use of the interrogative adjectives. 

7. Make a list of ten indefinite adjectives. 

8. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
use of indefinite adjectives. 

9. Make a list of ten numeral adjectives. 

10. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
use of numeral adjectives. 

In all the above sentences underline the adjective 
once and the noun or pronoun modified twice. 



MODIFIERS 27 

FOURTH LESSON 

1. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
adjective use of the present participle. 

2. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
adjective use of the past participle. 

3. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
use of the possessive noun and pronoun. 

4. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
use of , the noun in apposition. 

5. Make a list of ten prepositions. 

6. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
adjective use of the prepositional phrase. 

7. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the 
adjective use of the clause. 

In all the above sentences underline the adjective 
modifier once and the noun or pronoun modified twice. 

? 
FIFTH LESSON 

Select the adjective modifiers in the following and 
state what noun or pronoun is modified : — 

LEARNING REWARDED 

A rich farmer sent his son to a famous university. The 
young man, having no very good reputation for wisdom, carried 
home much folly and little learning. One night two roasted 
fowls were on the supper table. He, looking very wise, said, 
" I can prove that in these two fowls we have three." " Let 
us hear," said the old man. " This," said the silly scholar, 
pointing to the first, " is one, that," pointing to the second, 
iC is two, and two fowls and one fowl make three fowls." 



28 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

"Since you have made it out so finely," replied the father, 
disgusted, "your mother shall have the first fowl, I, who am 
old, will have the second, and you, who have such wisdom, 
may eat the third," 

B. Adverb Modifiers 

FIRST LESSON 

In the following- sentences select with the teacher the 
words, phrases, and clauses that modify the verbs. 
State in each case what idea is added to the meaning of 
the verb by the modifier : — 

i. Eagles fly rapidly. 

2. Eagles fly for fo@d. 

3. Eagles fly by day. 

4. They fly high. 

5. They fly far. 

6. Where do bats live? 

7. Where do they fly? 

8. How do they get their food ? 

9. Why do we study grammar? 

10. The stars revolve continually. 

11. The hawk is greatly feared. 

12. To paint beautifully is an art. 

13. John tried to learn his lesson quickly. 

14. Colonel Prescott commanded to shoot low. 

15. Why do you talk indistinctly? 

In the above sentences the modifiers of the verbs are 
called adverb modifiers. They add to the verb the 
thought of manner, cause, time, place, or degree. 

There are other kinds of adverbs, but these classes 
include by far the largest number of them. 



MODIFIERS 29 

Any word is an adverb that answers one of the ques- 
tions : hoiv ? why ? when ? where ? how much ? Apply 
these questions in the sentences of the above exercise. 

Perhaps the most common adverb outside of the 
classes mentioned is the negative adverb, not. 

SECOND LESSON 

In the following sentences select the phrases and 
clauses that modify the verbs, and state whether they 
are manner, cause, time, place, or degree : — 

1. Eagles fly by day. 

2. Children stay at home. 

3. A man is known by his companions. 

4. Wild animals run about in the forest. 

5. He went home to vote. 

6. At the proper time he spoke. 

7. They called me by name. 

8. We study to gain knowledge. 

9. The merchant grieved for his loss. 

10. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 

n. He went where he w T ished. 

12. The soldiers went because they were sent. 

13. An honest boy speaks as he thinks. 

14. The good citizen votes as his judgment dictates. 

15. Shut your eyes, for the night has come. 

16. While the storm lasted the vessels were driven to sea. 

17. The rain falls because moist air strikes cold air. 

18. Animals breathe that they may live. 

19. The rain falls when moist air strikes cold air. 

20. Plants grow by absorbing their food. 

Phrases and clauses which modify verbs are called 
adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses. 



30 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

THIRD LESSON 

In the following sentences select the words, phrases, 
and clauses that modify adjectives : — 

i. The apple had a very pleasant taste. 

2. King Midas was a most greedy man. 

3. He walked a very long way. 

4. He had an exceedingly bad temper. 

5. She had a most disagreeable friend. 

6. A rather long pole stood in the corner. 

7. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 

8. The horse was too old for work. 

9. How good a man he was ! 

10. So fair a face I have never seen before. 
n. Raleigh, taking off his clpak politely, placed it in the 
muddy street. 

12. The queen, confused by the act, stepped on it. 

13. Used thus for a bridge, the. cloak was ruined. 

14. Raleigh, taking it up, never afterwards wore it. 

16. The waves, breaking where the rocks are high, make a 
loud noise. 

16. That boy has as large a dog as I have. 

17. A fairy has a smaller body than a human being has. 

18. Truth has more followers than falsehood. 

19. The white man possesses a culture more advanced than 
that of any other race. 

20. The courage of a black man has as much strength as 
that of the white man. 

Words, phrases, and clauses that modify adjectives 
are called adverbial modifiers. 

Participles are modified by adverbial modifiers. Find 
all the cases in the above sentences where participles 
are modified. 



MODIFIERS 3 1 

Adverbial clauses introduced by than, or as, are 
clauses of degree. Such clauses are very often incom- 
plete. In the preceding sentences find such clauses and 
complete them where the predicate is wanting. State 
what each clause of degree modifies. 

FOURTH LESSON 

In the following sentences select the words, phrases, 
and clauses that modify the adverbs : — 

i. The child ran very rapidly. 

2. How sweetly the lark sings. 

3. General Bliicher arrived too late. 

4. We have only now heard the. news. 

5. The man has far too lazy a time. 

6. Christmas comes sooner than we expect. 

7. He paid too much by a dollar. 

8. A temperate man eats more wisely than a glutton. 

9. Laziness travels so slowly that Poverty overtakes it. 

10. -The ship was steered so skilfully that it reached the 
harbor safely. 

A word, phrase, or clause that modifies an adverb is 
an adverbial modifier. 

It will then be true to say that an adverbial modifier 
is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies a verb, adjec- 
tive, or other adverb. 

Such adverbial modifiers may be found by applying 
the test questions : how ? why ? when ? where ? how 
much ? 

FIFTH LESSON 

i. Compose five sentences illustrating the use of an 
adverb word modifying a verb. 



32 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

2. Compose five sentences illustrating the use of an 
adverbial phrase modifying a verb. 

3. Compose five sentences illustrating the use of an 
adverbial clause modifying a verb. 

4. Compose five sentences illustrating the use of an 
adverb modifying an adjective. 

5. Compose five sentences illustrating the use of an 
adverb modifying an adverb. 

In all the above sentences underline the adverb modi- 
fier once and the word modified twice. 

SIXTH LESSON 

1. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the use 
of adverbial modifiers of manner. 

2. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the use 
of adverbial modifiers of cause. 

3. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the use 
of adverbial modifiers of time. 

4. Compose five sentences that shall illustrate the use 
of adverbial modifiers of place. 

5. Compose five sentences which shall illustrate the 
use of adverbial modifiers of degree. 

In all the above sentences underline the adverbial 
modifier once, and the modified word twice. 

SEVENTH LESSON 
In the following select the adverbial modifiers, state 
what word is modified, and to what class the modifier 
belongs : — 

THE DONKEY AND THE WOLF 

A very wise donkey was feeding in an open meadow. A 
wolf came along to worry him. He immediately pretended 



MODIFIERS 33 

lameness. The wolf, when he came up, asked politely the 
cause of the trouble. The donkey willingly showed his hind 
hoof. While the wolf was looking very carefully, the donkey 
kicked vigorously. The wolf's teeth disappeared suddenly 
down his throat. The donkey, smiling to himself, made off. 
The wolf was quite seriously hurt. He said, sorrowfully, " It 
serves me just right. I should not try to assist a donkey." 

LITTLE PURPLE ASTER 

Little Purple Aster sitting on her stem, 
Peeping at the passers by, beckoning at them, 
Staring o'er at Goldenrod, by the pasture bars, 
Gives to him a timid nod, when he turns his stars. 

Little Purple Aster, waits till very late, 

Till the flowers have faded from the garden gate, 

Then, when all is dreary, see her buds unfurled, 

Come to cheer a changeful and a sombre autumn world. 

Review of Adjective and Adverb Modifiers 

Select all the modifiers in the following sentences. 
State whether they are adjective or adverb ; word, 
phrase, or clause ; and what each modifies : — 

(i) A very miserly planter formerly lived in the island of 
Jamaica. (2) He often gave his poor slaves too little food. 
(3) They complained bitterly. (4) He answered that he 
could not help himself, because the provision ships had been 
taken by pirates. (5) This lying excuse satisfied them once, 
twice, thrice, and again. (6) Finally they went to their mas- 
ter and said, " How comes it that the pirates take the ships 
laden with provisions more often than those filled with pick- 
axes and hoes?" 



CHAPTER V 
CONNECTIVES 

This chapter will consider the last of the four relations 
which words in a sentence may bear to each other — 
the relation of connective. 

What are the other three relations already studied ? 

All connectives may be divided into three great 
classes : A, coordinate connectives ; B, subordinate 
connectives ; and C, connective or copula verbs. 

*. 
A, Coordinate Connectives 

FIRST LESSON 

A word that connects word's, phrases, or clauses of 
equal grammatical rank is a coordinate connective. 

Words, phrases, and clauses have the same, that is 
equal, grammatical rank when they do the same business 
(that is, hold the same grammatical relation, or have 
the same construction) in a sentence. 

With the teacher determine in the following sentences 
the grammatical construction of the parts underlined. 
Make a list of the words that connect the underlined 
parts. 

i. Mary and John went away. 



2. 


Give to me neither poverty nor riches. 


3- 


You and I will go. 


4- 


We laugh and cry. 


5- 


Millet was a great and famous painter. 



34 



CONNECTIVES 35 

6. Write your name in kindness, love, and mercy. 

7. The speaker had a small but attentive audience. 

8. One needs in life both to see and to think. 



9. What one has and what one wants are not always the 
same. 

10. Washington worked both faithfully and carefully. 

Coordinate connectives are usually called coordinate 
conjunctions. 

The most common coordinate conjunctions are and, 
but ; with the correlatives, both — and, either — or, 
neither — nor. 

SECOND LESSON 

1. Construct five sentences in which words shall be 
connected by a coordinate conjunction. Have different 
parts of speech connected, and use all the conjunctions 
in the list. 

2. Construct six sentences in which phrases shall be 
connected by a coordinate conjunction. Have two 
sentences with infinitive phrases, two sentences with 
prepositional phrases, two with participial phrases. 

3. Construct five sentences in which clauses shall be 
connected by a coordinate conjunction. 

In the above sentences underline once the parts that 
are connected, and twice the coordinate conjunctions. 

B. Subordinate Connectives 

A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses of 
unequal grammatical rank is a subordinate connective. 

There are five kinds (or classes) of subordinate 
connectives — subordinate conjunctions, prepositions, 
relative pronouns, relative adjectives, relative adverbs. 



36 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Subordinate Conjunctions 
FIRST LESSON 
In the following sentences select with the teacher the 
principal statement (that is, the main clause), the subor- 
dinate clause, and the connective. 

i. A dull person fails to see that the landscape is beautiful. 

2. We see nothing unless we open our eyes. 

3. All animals must be alert if they wish to live. 

4. Look quickly lest you lose the sunset. 

5. The trees in California are larger than those in the 
East (are large). 

6. A lake becomes salt unless it has an outlet. 

7. The ancients thought that the earth and sky meet. 

8. A top spins less rapidly than the earth. 

9. The earth would melt if the sun came near. 

10. Millions of stars can be seen clearly, if we use a 
telescope. * 

The above sentences illustrate the use of subordinate 
conjunctions. 

Subordinate conjunctions, like coordinate conjunc- 
tions, do nothing in a sentence but connect. 

How do these two conjunctions differ in their use? 

The principal subordinate conjunctions are : as, if, 
lest, that, tlian, tinlcss. 

Clauses introduced by than are generally elliptical 

clauses. 

SECOND LESSON 

1. Construct four sentences illustrating the use of if. 

2. Construct four sentences illustrating the use of 
lest. 

3. Construct four sentences illustrating the use of 
that, as a subordinate conjunction. 



CONNECTIVES 37 

4. Construct four sentences illustrating the use of 
than. 

5. Construct four sentences illustrating the use of 
unless. 

In each of the above sentences underline the main 
clause once, the subordinate clause twice, and the con- 
junction three times. 

THIRD LESSON 

In the following sentences select the main clause, the 
subordinate clause, and state how they are connected. 

It should always be said that the subordinate part is 
joined to the main part, rather than the main part to 
the subordinate part. 

Why is this distinction important ? 

1. Unless you do right you will not be respected. 

2: They hurried lest they be late. 

3. There were more men in the North than in the South. 

4. Our fathers work that we may be educated. 

5. If we try, we generally succeed. 

6. Unless dikes were built, the water would overflow 
Holland. 

7. Do not say a thing unless you have a good reason. 

8. Old people walk slowly lest they fall. 

9. Ethel is taller than I am. 

10. He went to California that he might improve his health. 

n. I will help you if you will come here. 

12. I am proud that I am an American. 

13. Lincoln was as great as Washington. 

14. Watch your character lest evil creep into it. 

15. Washington's character cannot be imitated, unless we 
are truthful, just, and honest. 



38 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Prepositions 
FIRST LESSON 

A preposition is a word that takes an object and con- 
nects that object with some other word in the sentence. 

A preposition and its object make a prepositional 
phrase. The object may have modifiers. 

A preposition connects its object with the word which 
the phrase modifies. 

In the following sentences select w 7 ith the teacher the 
prepositions, their objects, and state what each preposi- 
tion connects : — 

i. Washington Irving lived at Sunnyside. 

2* The spy went among the enemy. 

3. The winds beat against the tower. 

4. Many a person is ruined by debt. 

5. A friend spoke a good word for him. 

6. Industry will keep you from want. 

7. Do not waste your youth in idleness. 

8. The train came into the depot. 

9. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

10. He gave the book to you and me. 

1 1 . Snow comes with the frost. 

12. By what is a man to be judged? 

13. Far from the road flowed a river. 

14. Whom did you speak of? 

15. It is gravity by which the earth is held. 

The most common prepositions are : at, among, 
against, by, for, from, in, into, of, to, with. 

The only words that take objects are transitive verbs 
and prepositions. 



CONNECTIVES 39 

The object of a preposition is found in the same way 
that the object of a verb is found. 

Some words may be used either as adverbs or prep- 
ositions, i.e. Mary fell down. Here dowit simply 
expresses place. It has no object. It is therefore an 
adverb. 

Mary fell down stairs. Here down has an object, 
stairs. It is therefore a preposition. 

SECOND LESSON 

Construct sentences using each of the following words, 
first as an adverb, then as a preposition : around, 
against, without, underneath, beyond, within, through, 
upon, above, between. 

THIRD LESSON 

In the following sentences select the prepositional 
phrases, determine what each modifies, and state what 
the preposition connects. 

1. A man of honor speaks the truth. 

2. The tree blew over the precipice. 

3. The wind from the north blew the house over. 

4. Man is the glory, jest, and riddle of the world. 

5. On historic ground we travel. 

6. I admire the picture of which you speak. 

7. The captain went below from the deck. 

8. What are you talking about ? 

9. From whom have you come? 

10. Let us go for a walk. 

1 1 . Write your name in kindness, love, and mercy on the 
hearts of thousands. 



40 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

12. William H. Seward ranks with Chase and Douglas. 

13. In the meadow, in the summer evening, lived a firefly. 

14. A little old woman before me, 
Went slowly down the street. 

15. In the fold of her rusty mantle, 
Sudden her footsteps caught. 



Relative Pronouns 
FIRST LESSON 

A relative pronoun is a word that takes the place of 
a noun, and connects the clause in which it stands with 
the word that the clause modifies. 

In the following sentences select with the teacher the 
relative pronouns, and determine what they connect : — 

1. Mercury was the god who carried messages. * 

2. He had wings, which were on his feet. 

3. He also possessed a staff, which he carried in his hands. 

4. The other gods told Mercury what he should do. 

5. He is the man that did the deed. 

6. The man whom I saw has disappeared. 

7. We desire friends whos^ sincerity we trust. 

8. We work for what we want. 

9. Lincoln split the rails which made his fences. 

10. It was a poor cabin in which he lived. 

11. Coral, whose beauty attracts every one, is difficult to get. 

12. The crow pulls up what the farmer plants. 

13. Lack of attention, which is really lack of thought, is 
really either folly or madness. 

14. Never trouble another for what you can do yourself. 

15. Men and women who have become useful have been 
industrious. 



CONNECTIVES 



41 



The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that. 

Who is used to refer to persons only. 

Which is used to refer to things only. 

That is used to refer to either persons or things. 

What is used when the antecedent is not expressed. 

Find illustrations of the truth of the above four 
statements in the exercises of this lesson. 

A relative clause always modifies the antecedent of 
the relative pronoun. 

Test the truth of this statement by referring to the 
sentences of this lesson. 

There are three things to consider about a relative 
pronoun: (1) its antecedent; (2) what it connects; 
(3) its use in its own clause. 

Determine the use of each relative pronoun in this 
lesson. 

SECOND LESSON 

Construct ten sentences, illustrating as many uses of 
the relative pronoun as you can. 

Draw one line under the relative clause, two lines 
under the relative pronoun, and three lines under the 
antecedent. State above the relative pronoun its con- 
struction in its clause. 

THIRD LESSON 

In the following sentences select the relative pronouns 
and their antecedents. State what each relative pro- 
noun connects, and its construction in its own clause. 

1. Washington, whom the country loved, was the first 
President. 

2. The horse, that was sick, died. 



42 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

3. Harrison, for whom the people voted for President, died 
a month after he took his office. 

4. All people do not do what they are supposed to do. 

5. Mr. McKinley, who was elected President, was chosen 
in 1896. 

6. The Japanese, who are great tea-drinkers, are very dark. 

7. Asia, which was the first known land, is of great interest 
to mankind. 

8. Napoleon, whom the world honored, died at St. Helena. 

9. Lord Roberts, whose name is widely known, has gone to 
the Transvaal. 

10. The Chinese, against whom there is much prejudice, do 
not adopt modern ideas. 

fourth Lesson 

Do with the relative pronouns of the following sen- 
tences as you did with thos£ in the sefitences of the 
third lesson. 

1. The Japanese, who possess energy, are becoming a great 
nation. 

2. The officer, whom we saw, was a general. 

3. We cannot always have what we want. 

4. The man, that brings about war, should be condemned. 

5. Each one gives what he thinks best. 

6. The bicycle, on which he rode, lay on the grass. 

7. The dog, whose master was lost, barked loudly. 

8. Do not be discouraged by mistakes, into which any man 
may fall. 

9. We may gain much from the mistakes which we make. 

10. Audubon loved the animals which lived near him. 

11. It was his father who taught him. 

12. His father suggested a plan by which he might preserve 
birds without killing them. 



CONNECTIVES 43 

13. A book, in which were pictures of animals, was placed 
in his hands. 

14. He at once began to draw whatever came to hand. 

15. The drawings, which he made, have become famous. 

Relative Adjectives 
Which and what 'are sometimes used to connect two 
clauses, and, at the same time, to modify a noun. When 
they are used in this way they are called relative (or 
conjunctive) adjectives. 

EXAMPLES 

1. I do not care what hat you wear. 

2. I do not care which hat you wear. 

3. He told what answer he would give. 

4. Each one must decide what course he will pursue. 

Relative Adverbs 
Where, when, whence, why, whither, as, are some- 
times used to connect two clauses, and at the same time 
to modify the verb of the clause in which they stand. 
When they are used in this way they are called relative 
(or conjunctive) adverbs. 

EXAMPLES 

r. We saw the place where the accident was. 

2. He went when he was given permission. 

3. They looked in the direction whence the noise came. 

4. She gave the reason why she stayed at home. 

5. The friends looked in the direction whither the boat 
was going. 

6. The train left as the conductor had said. 

Where and zvhen have the compound forms wherein, 
whereby, ivherefore, etc., and whenever. 



44 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

C. Connective Verbs 
FIRST LESSOiN 

Some verbs, besides making a statement, form a 
connecting link between the subject and the noun (or 
pronoun) or adjective following. Such verbs are called 
connective or copula verbs. 

Five very common copula verbs are : to be, to be- 
come, to seem, to appear, to look. 

The verb to be (and all other copula verbs) never 
takes an object. It may be followed by a noun or 
pronoun, meaning the same as the subject, called a. 
predicate nominative ; or by an adjective, modifying the 
subject, called a predicate adjective. 

In the following sentences select with the teacher the 
copula verbs, and state what they connect. 

i. The pine is an evergreen tree. 

2. Spruce and balsam are also evergreens. 

3. Other trees become brown in winter. 

4. These look green the year round. 

5. The stars look bright on a cold night. 

6. The air becomes warm when there are clouds.. 

7. A boy soon becomes a man. 

8. Wrong should never seem right. 

9. A stick in the water looks broken. 

10. Honesty is the best policy. 

11. It does not always seem the best policy. 

12. Praise undeserved is satire undisguised. 

13. Not to progress is to retrogress. 

14. The Milky Way looks white. 

15. The moon becomes red during the eclipse. 

The verb to be is sometimes used in the sense of to 
exist, i.e. "God is." In this case it is not a copula verb. 



CONNECTIVES 45 

SECOND LESSON 

Construct two sentences in which some form of the 
verb to be shall be followed by a predicate adjective ; 
and two sentences in which it shall be followed by a 
predicate nominative. 

Use each of the other copula verbs in four sentences 
in the same way. 

THIRD LESSON 

In the following sentences select the copula verbs, the 
predicate nominatives, and the predicate adjectives : — 

A predicate adjective may precede the copula verb, 
i.e. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

1. I am not covetous for gold. 

2. The book is his. 

3. Be civil. 

4. Beautiful is young enthusiasm. 

5. True politeness is perfect ease and freedom. 
6.- Men at some time are masters of their fate. 

7. Happy is the man whose good intentions have borne 
fruit in deeds. 

8. The child is father to the man. 

9. The groves were God's first temples. 

10. The end and aim of all education is the development 
of character. 

n. The world is full of thoughts. 

12. To thine own self be true. 

13. The clouds looked black in the east. 

14. " Uncle Tom's Cabin " became a famous story. 

15. An ignorant man was a visitor in Paris. He seemed 
pleased with what he saw. But wonderful enough one thing 
appeared. " How clever the children are," he said, " although 
they look ordinary, for they speak French quite as well as the 
children in London speak English." 



46 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

REVIEW OF MODIFYING AND CONNECTIVE RELATIONS 

FIRST LESSON 

1. Why was the chapter on "Phrasing" placed at 
the beginning of the book ? 

2. On what does the phrasing of a sentence depend? 

3. Did all literature come into existence already 
punctuated. 

4. Why is it that different scholars would punctuate 
an old manuscript differently ? 

5. Which one would be right? 

6. Give the headings of the chapters up to this point. 

7. Why are the chapters placed in this order ? 

8. Prove that the word brave may be used as (a) a 
verb; (b) a noun, subject of a verb; (c) a noun, object 
of a verb ; (d) an adjective. . 

9. Prove that the infinitive phrase, to exercise, may 
be used as (a) subject; (b) object; (c) adverb. 

10. Prove that the clause, whence it came, may be 
used as (a) subject; {b) object; (c) adverb. 

1 1 . Explain the difference between descriptive, demon- 
strative, interrogative, indefinite, and numeral adjectives. 

12. Give four adjectives under each of the above 
classes. 

13. How can you tell the difference between a 
demonstrative pronoun and a demonstrative adjective. 

14. Give a sentence illustrating the use of each of 
the above. 

15. How can you tell the difference between an inter- 
rogative pronoun and an interrogative adjective ? Illus- 
trate. 



CONNECTIVES 47 

16. Illustrate the use of numerals as nouns and as 
adjectives. 

17. Illustrate the use of an adverb modifying a verb ; 
modifiying an adjective; modifying another adverb. 

18. How can you tell the difference between a rela- 
tive pronoun and a relative adjective? 

19. Give a sentence illustrating the use of a relative 
pronoun. 

20. Give a sentence illustrating the use of a relative 
adjective. 

21. What three things does a relative pronoun do ? 

22. What two things does a relative adverb do ? 

23. A relative pronoun always introduces what kind 
of a clause ? 

24. Give a list of the different kinds of connectives 
that you have studied about. 

25. Give a list of words under each kind of connective. 

SECOND LESSON 

Select in the following sentences the modifying words, 
phrases, and clauses, and the connecting words. Explain 
fully the use of each. 

1. Don't cross the bridge until you come to it. 

2. Now and then a puff of wind comes around the corner. 

3. Who knows whither the clouds have fled? 

4. He who fills his heart with the truths of the poets may 
work them out in heroic deeds. 

5. The field mouse makes a tiny round nest of blades of 
grass, or wheat, or straw. 

6. What a spur and impulse the summer shower is ! 

7. What ardently we wish we soon believe. 



48 , LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

8. This is the children's hour. 

9. Upon what food do these birds subsist? 

10. With what are their nests lined for warmth? 

11. Charms strike the sight, but merit wins the soul. 

12. The robins build their nests when the woods and grass 
are still brown. 

13. He will succeed because he is honest. 

14. A square is a figure whose opposite sides are parallel. 

15. The house to which we went appears deserted. 



THIRD LESSON 

In the following selection make a list of all the modi- 
fiers and connectives. State what kind each is and what 
is modified or connected. 

THE CORPORAL'S WATCH 

A corporal in the Life-guards of Frederick the .Great was a 
brave but rather vain fellow. He could not afford a watch, but 
he managed to buy a chain, and this he wore with a bullet at 
the end. The king, hearing of this, thought he would have a 
little fun at the soldier's expense. He said to him, "It is six 
o'clock by my watch. What is it by yours ! " The man drew 
the bullet from his pocket and answered, " My watch does not 
mark the hour, but it tells me every moment that it is my duty 
to face death for your Majesty." " Here, my friend," said 
Frederick, offering him his own costly watch, " take this, that 
you may be able to tell the hours also." 

Analysis of Sentences 

We have now become familiar with all the relations 
that words may hold to each other in a sentence. The 
process of finding these relations is called analysis. A 



ANALYSIS 49 

good deal of practice is yet necessary, however, in order 
to gain the power to think quickly and accurately in 
grammatical study. 

The following order is suggested as a logical one to 
use in analyzing sentences : — 

The sentence (here copy the sentence to be analyzed). 
Classification of sentence according to use (declarative, imperative, 
interrogative, exclamatory). 

PART SELECTED USE RELATION CLASSIFICATION 

Main verb 

Subject (simple) 

Object (simple) 

Subject modifiers 
Words 

Phrases (these should be analyzed when they occur) 
Clauses (these should be analyzed after the other parts of the 
sentence) 

Object modifiers 
Words 
Phrases 
Clauses 

Predicate verb modifiers 
Words 
Phrases 
Clauses 

(Here may be placed analysis of any clauses, following same plan 
as above.) 

Classification of sentence according to structure (simple, compound, 
complex) . 



5o 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



Example of the analysis of a sentence : " We saw in 
the yard the horse that ran away." This sentence 
makes a statement. It is therefore a declarative sen- 
tence. 



PART SELECTED 



USE 



RELATION CLASSIFICATION 



saw states 

We answers "Who saw?" 

horse answers " Saw what ? " 

the points out horse 

that ran away defines horse 

in the yard tells where we saw 



pred. v. 


v. 


subj. 


per. pro. 


obj. 


com. n. 


adj. 


def. art. 


adj. 


rel. cl. 


adv. 


prep. adv. ph 




of place 



I 


fin 


connects yard and saw 


connecting 


prep. 


l { 


yard 


answers "in what?" 


obj. 


com. n. 


I 


the 
' that 


points out yard 
connects that ran away 


adj. 


def. art. 






with horse 


connecting 


rel. pro. 


< ■ 


ran 


states 


pred. v. 


v. 


U 


that 


answers "Who ran?" 


subj . 


rel. pro. 




away 


tells where he ra7i 


adv. 


adv. place 



What is analysis ? 

Are other things analyzed besides sentences ? 

Give the analysis of some word. 

Give the analysis of some object. 



FIRST LESSON 

Analyze the following simple sentences : — 

i. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

2. Poorly learned lessons slip from the memory. 

3. A soul without reflection runs to ruin. 

4. Three fishers went sailing out into the west. 

5. The walls of the building were very thick. 



ANALYSIS 51 

SECOND LESSON 
Analyze the following simple sentences : — 

1. Our forefathers purchased liberty with their blood. 

2. Their glory and their might shall perish. 

3. She raised her jewelled hand and flung her tresses back. 

4. Enjoyment may afford strength to body and mind. 

5. A dishonest beggar, rinding himself reduced to his last 
penny, began a dishonest career. 

THIRD LESSON 
Analyze the following compound sentences : — 

1. Wealth will not bring happiness nor will fame yield peace. 

2. I must refuse your generous offer, or I must break my 
word with my employer. 

3. Washington's army had many raw recruits, but he never 
despaired. 

4. Nature is frugal and her wants are few. 

5. Cheerfulness keeps a kind of daylight in the mind and 
fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. 

FOURTH LESSON 
Analyze the following complex sentences : — 

1. Hail to the chief who in triumph advances. 

2. Most troubles that we meet in this world arise from an 
irritable temper. 

3. I came because you called me. 

4. A temperate man eats that he may love. 

5. I will go with you, if you wish it. 



52 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

FIFTH LESSON 

Analyze the following complex sentences: — 

i. He had a fever when he was in Spain. 

2. A strange feeling had been growing upon him while he 
slept. 

3. That the gate had been left open had been quite for- 
gotten. 

4. I cannot admire the man for whom the song of birds has 
no charms. 

5. Every influence that breathes from Irving's writings is 
good and generous. 

SIXTH LESSON 
Analyze the following selection : — 

SEPTEMBER 

1. The golden'rod is yellow, 

The corn is turning brown. 
The trees in apple orchards 
With fruit are bending down. 

2. The gentian's bluest fringes 

Are curling in the sun. 
In dusky pods the milkweed 
Its hidden silk has spun. 

3. The sedges flaunt their harvest 

In every meadow nook ; 
And asters by the roadside 
Make asters in the brooks. 

4. From dewy lanes at morning 

The grapes' sweet odors rise. 
At noon the roads all flutter 
With yellow butterflies. 



ANALYSIS 53 

By all these lovely tokens 

September days are here, 
With summer's best of weather 

And autumn's best of cheer. 



SEVENTH LESSON 

Analyze the following : — 

A Dutch vessel and an English vessel were lying near each 
other. One of the Dutch sailors wished to show his activity. 
He ran up the mast and stood on his head on the top of it. 
One of the English sailors, who disliked Dutchmen, also tried 
to do the same thing. He, however, fell. The rigging broke 
his fall and he alighted on the deck unhurt. " There," he 
cried, "do that if you can." 



Part II 

CHAPTER I 
DECLENSION OF NOUNS 

In Part I we have studied the relations that words in 
a sentence may hold to each other, and we have seen 
that only four relations are possible. 

State what those relations are. 

This study of grammatical relations terminates in the 
analysis of the sentence. 

In Part II we shall study the different forms that 
words may assume, (i) to fit them for the ^different rela- 
tions that they may hold; and (2) to express modifications 
in meaning. 

FIRST LESSON 

Nouns and pronouns change their form to indicate 
their relation in the sentence. 

Three of these relations are called cases ; and have 
been named as follows : — 

subject relation = nominative case 
object relation = objective case 
modifying relation (in some instances) = possessive case 

Examples : — 

The nominative case — The man ran 

_. . . (I saw the man 

The objective case } . . , . 

J ( We looked at the man 

The possessive case — A man's reputation is worth preserving. 

54 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 55 

The three case forms arranged in some order, in the 
singular and plural numbers, make the declension of 
the noun or pronoun. The order that custom has estab- 
lished is : — 

SINGULAR NUMBER PLURAL NUMBER 

Nominative case man men 

Possessive case man's men's 

Objective case man men 

What is declension ? 

In the following sentences select the words in the 
nominative, possessive, and objective cases: — 

1. John struck James with a stick. 

2. The farmer has a horse. 

3. The farmer's horse became famous. 

4. Charity covers a multitude of sins. 

5. Softly blows the summer breeze. 

6. Was the speaker's voice clear ? 

7. The eagle's flight we watched. 

8. The man's coat had signs of wear. 

9. From the north came the winter's blast. 
10. The grocer's prices were high. 

SECOND LESSON 

It will be noticed in the declension of the noun, man, 
in the preceding lesson, and also in the sentences, that 
the objective case form in the singular is like the nomi- 
native case form in the singular ; and that the plural 
objective form is like the plural nominative form. 

The plural nominative form, however, differs from the 
singular nominative form. The plural nominative forms 
are made in several ways. 



56 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

1. The most common way of making the plural 
nominative form is by adding s (or es where the sound 
requires it) to the singular nominative form. 

Write a column of twenty nouns in the singular, 
and underline those that form their plural by adding 
s or es. 

2. There are several other methods that have devel- 
oped with the growth of the language. But as each 
method applies to a limited number of words, rules are 
of little assistance. We become familiar by use with 
the plural forms, and then we notice that these plurals 
may be brought together into groups. We shall follow 
this process. 

Give the plural form of each noun in the following 
list. With the aid of the teacher, the words that form 
their plural in the same'way may be grouped together, 
and a statement (rule) may be made regarding each 
group. 

Copy the following words in column and to the right 
of each word place the plural form : grocer, hat, eagle, 
sea, grass, box, wish, church, city, lady, pony, body, 
monkey, boy, toy, bay, leaf, loaf, beef, calf, wife, knife, 
life, cargo, echo, hero, canto, solo, folio, man, goose, 
tooth, ox, child, sheep, deer, cannon, swine, bellows, gal- 
lows, physics, politics, brother, cloth, index, die, a, b, c, d. 

A careful study of the plural forms of the above 
words will reveal thirteen groups. Other words may 
be added to each group. 

There are also a large number of words taken from 
foreign languages that have not yet lost their foreign 
plural form. The following are very common words of 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 57 

this class and they should be learned. The plural forms 
maybe found in the dictionary at the same time that 
the meanings are looked up : formula, vertebra, radius, 
magus, focus, medium, memorandum, stratum, hypothe- 
sis, crisis, ellipsis, analysis, oasis, madame. 

THIRD LESSON 

The possessive case is formed in the singular by add- 
ing 's to the nominative singular. 

The possessive case is formed in the plural by adding 
9 s to the nominative plural, if the nominative plural does 
not end in s. If the nominative plural does end in s, 
the possessive plural is formed by adding ' only. 

Form the possessive singular of the following nouns : 
boy, lady, baby, wife, thief, negro, hero, child, madame, 
horse, fox, pony, mouse, ox, leaf, edge, goose. 

Put each one of these possessives into a sentence. 
• Form the possessive plural of each of the above 
nouns. 

It appears to be a growing custom among good 
writers to avoid the use of the possessive case of all 
nouns standing for things without life, and in all in- 
stances where its use produces a clumsy expression. 
How can the use of the possessive case be avoided ? 

FOURTH LESSON 

(a) In the following sentences make such changes 
that each noun in the possessive case singular shall be 
in the possessive case plural or the reverse. In which 



58 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

of these sentences do you think it would be better to 

use a phrase rather than the possessive case ? 

i. A mother's cares are many. 

2. A horse's legs are slender. 

3. The soldier's duty takes him into danger. 

4. The sailor's joys are mixed with hardship. 

5. A boy's games should be honestly played. 

6. A housekeeper's work is never done. 

7. It is a citizen's duty to vote. 

8. There is danger in playing with a tiger's young. 

9. Animals often have a man's courage. 

10. A woman's endurance is generally underestimated. 

11. The boy's coat was torn. 

12. The photographer's lens was too small. 

13. They praised the doctor's-skill. 

14. The child's clothes are clean. 

15. They found the thief's tools. 

16. We admired the ladies' dresses. ^ 

17. The babies' playthings were broken. 

18. Hunters tell many stories of foxes' cunning. 

19. A wife's duties are numerous. 

20. The eagle's wings are strong. 

{b) Turn the following prepositional phrases into 
nouns in the possessive case : — 

1. The home of our ancestors. 

2. The wars of the barbarians. 

3. The health of the children. 

4. The cunning of the fox. 

5. The army of the Bri tains. 

6. The freedom of the slaves. 

7. The strength of the horse. 

8. The politeness of the boys, 
o. The skill of the doctors. . 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 59 

10. The success of the men. 

11. The fragrance of the Tillies. 

12. The kindness of the nurse. 

13. The harshness of the overseer. 

14. The beauty of the trout. 

15. The graceful motions of the deer. 

FIFTH LESSON 
Correct the following sentences : — 

1.' My friends hat was lost. 

2. The mans' courage was well known. 

3. The suns' rays are bright. 

4. The wolfs' hunger made them savage. 

5. We admire childrens' simplicity. 

6. Babie's hands are always small. 

7. Jame's hat blew off. 

8. Englands' calls to duty meets with a hearty response. 

9. Poets homes attract travellers. 

10. A ponys' hoofs, are small. 

11. A bicycles structure is delicate. 

12. America's spirit is progressive. 

13. The wheels spokes were broken. 

14. Noted mens' autographs are often in demand. 

15. A childs' mind is impressionable. 

16. The lions' roar terrified the hunter. 

17. The tired boys' eyelids closed. 

18. Musics charms have great power. 

19. The schools reputation was good. 

20. People's idea's differ. 

21. Our nations' honor must be maintained. 

22. The worlds interests' are ours. 

23. Africas' resources have developed. 

24. Washingtons' farewell address has had great influence. 

25. The enemies' of good order should be controlled. 



60 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

SIXTH LESSON 

Write the declension of girl, horse, lady, star, boy. . 

Illustrate by a sentence the nominative case, by 
another sentence the possessive case, by another sen- 
tence the objective case of some noun. 

In the following sentences state what case each noun 
is in. Decline all the nouns in the first five sentences. 

i. The bird's call was peculiar. 

2. Clay and Webster stood for the Constitution above all 
other things. 

3. Sumner's father was interested in his education. 

4. The rose's petals have fallen. 

5. Many people admired the*lion. 

6. Do you like the color of the school ink. 

7. Cheerfulness is the best promoter of health. 

8. Success grows out of struggles to overcome difficulties. 

9. Duty's path is the way to glory. 

10. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world. 



SEVENTH LESSON 

We have studied the changes in the form of nouns to 
indicate case and number. Nouns also change their 
form to indicate gender. From the standpoint of sex, 
objects may be divided into three classes : — 

1st, male sex 
2d, female sex 
3d, without life 

In English those nouns that stand for objects of the 
male sex are of the masculine gender. Those that 



DECLENSIOIV OF NOUNS 6 1 

stand for objects of the female sex are of the feminine 
gender. Those that stand for objects without life are 
of the neuter gender. The term, common gender, is 
applied to those words that stand for objects of either 
or both sexes ; as parent, fish, friend, etc. 

i. In some cases the feminine noun is formed from 
the masculine noun. 

Give the feminine forms of the following nouns and 
explain how each is made : baron, heir, lion, shepherd, 
actor,, tiger, master, negro, hero, czar, administrator. 

2. In some cases the gender is indicated by prefixing 
a masculine or feminine word. Give the feminine of 
he-goat, man-servant. 

3. In some cases entirely different words are used to 
indicate the gender. 

Give the feminine of the following : father, son, uncle, 
nephew, gentleman, boy, horse, brother, husband, lord. 

4. In some cases an object without life is thought of 
as possessing masculine or feminine qualities, and the 
noun is therefore said to be of the masculine or femi- 
nine gender. 

From this point of view of what gender, in your 
opinion, could we consider the following words to be ? 
mountain, earth, ship, peace, joy, sun, moon, breeze, 
hurricane. 

EIGHTH LESSON 

There are three grammatical persons. The person 
speaking is said to be in the first person. The person 
spoken to is said to be in the second person. The per- 
son or thing spoken of is said to be in the third person. 



62 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Give the person of each noun in the following' sen- 
tences : — 

i. The house that Jack built still stands in the imagination. 

2. I, John, am speaking. 

3. You, Mary, have studied well. 

4. Boys, a path ! 

5. Charge ! Chester, charge ! 

6. Come, winter winds, and blow your blast. 

7. O holy night ! from thee I learn to bear 
What man has borne before. 

8. Build me straight ! O worthy master ! 
Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel. 

NINTH LESSON 

A statement of all the grammatical facts regarding a 

word is called parsing. * 

» *** 

It is better to follow some order in giving these facts. 
A proper order may be determined with the teacher 
after a study of the nouns in the following sentence : — 

Tennyson, England's greatest modern poet, was a devoted 
lover of the beautiful from the very beginning of his career. 

Parse each noun in the following letter of John Quincy 
Adams to his father (written in 1777): — 

I love to receive letters very well ; much better than I love 
to write them. I make but a poor figure at composition, my 
head is much too fickle. My thoughts are running after birds' 
eggs, play, and trifles, till I get vexed with myself. Mamma 
has a troublesome task to keep me steady, and I own I am 
ashamed of myself. I wish, Sir, you would give me some 
instructions with regard to my time, and advise me how to pro- 
portion my studies and my play. 



CHAPTER II 
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 

FIRST LESSON 





First Person 


Second Person 


(Old Form) 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


Sing. 
I 

my or mine 
me 


Sing. 
you 

your or yours 
you 


Sing. 
(thou) 

(thy or thine) 
(thee) 




Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


we 

our or ours 

us 


you 

your or yours 

you 


(ye) 

(your or yours) 

(ye) 




Thirl 


> Person 




. 


MASCULINE 


FEMININE 


NEUTER 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


Sing. 
he 
his 
him 


Sing. 
she 

her or hers 
her 


Sing. 
it 
its 
it 




Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


they 

their or theirs 

them 


they 

their or theirs 

them 


they 

their or theirs 

them 



These are called personal pronouns because they 
show by their form the grammatical person intended. 

These pronouns are frequently misused. To assist in 
using them properly the four following rules should be 
learned and kept constantly in mind : — 

63 



64 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Rule i. The subject of a verb is in the nominative 
case and should have the nominative case form. 

Rule 2. The object of a verb or preposition is in the 
objective case and should have the objective case form. 
(Why have we not heeded these two rules before ?) 

Rule 3. A noun or pronoun which modifies another 
noun, showing possession, is in the possessive case, and 
strould have the possessive case form. 

Rule 4. A noun or pronoun, used with a copula 
verb, meaning the same as the subject, is in the nomi- 
native case, and should have the nominative case form. . 

second Lesson 

In the following sentences explain why each personal 
pronoun is in its proper form': — 

1. He is a tall man. 

2. My friends saw me. 

3. Are they trustworthy? 

4. The entertainment gave pleasure to me. 

5. I looked at him. 

6. It was I who came. 

7. They helped us a great deal. 

8. You wrong me, Brutus. 

9. I beseech you, sir, be not out with me ; yet, if you be 
out, I can mend you. 

10. It is your hat. 

11. His hat was too large for him. 

12. My friend and I went together. 

13. The train bore my friend and me away. 

14. The train stopped for my friend and me. 

15. John is older than I. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 



65 



1 6. The collector took your ticket, but not mine. 

17. John was taller than he. 

18. Hold fast all that I give thee. 

19. My friend took their photographs with her camera. 

20. Cast thy bread upon the waters and it shall return to 
thee after many days. 

21. Shall I give it to her with your thanks? 

22. We shall take our boats with us. 

23. It was she who told the story to them. 

24. The snake raised its head to strike him. 

25. I have only one counsel for you — be master. 



THIRD LESSON 



In the following sentences insert some personal pro- 
noun, and explain why the form you select is correct: — 



1. 

2. 

3- 

4. 

5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 

11. 
12. 



T 3 
14 
T 5 



Here am . 

Here is . 

Here are . 

I looked for 

I looked for 

I looked for 

I looked for 

They looked for 
He saw — 
He saw — 
He saw — 
He saw — 
He saw — 



That boy runs faster than 
That boy runs faster than 

16. That boy runs faster than 

17. That boy runs faster than 

18. That boy runs faster than 

19. That boy runs faster than 



66 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

20. Neither you nor can perform the task. 

21. Neither you nor can perform the task. 

22. Neither you nor can perform the task. 

23. Neither you nor can perform the task. 

24. Neither you nor can perform the task. 

25. He is taller than — 



26. He is taller than — 

27. He is taller than — 

28. He is taller than — 

29. He is taller than ■ — 

FOURTH LESSON 

Make sentences, each one of which shall contain a 
different form of the personal pronoun used correctly, 
as. follows : — 

1. Five sentences vising the personal pronoun as 
subject. 

2. Five sentences using the personal pronoun as ob- 
ject of a verb. 

3. Five sentences using them as object of a preposition. 

4. Five sentences using them as predicate nominative. 

5. Five sentences using possessive forms. • 

FIFTH LESSON 

Correct the following sentences according to the rules 
of the preceding lesson. Write out in full the reasons 
for all corrections in the first ten sentences : — 

1. Him went astray. 

2. I saw he. 

3. The boy sold they marbles. 

4. She hat was very becoming. 

5. The dog's were very hungry. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 6f 

6. That boy was heavier than me. 

7. They saw the wild animals. 

8. Was it her? 

9. Them are my books. 

10. She suffers more than him. 

11. Both he and his brother I heard when they sang. 

12. That could not be her. 

13. I fear that it is him. 

14. That could not be him. 

15. I would not do that, if I were him. 

16. Will you have John and I for friends? 

17. The doctor gave medicine to mine brother and I. 

18. Who broke the window? Them. 

19. They who were at fault the teacher punished. 

20. May, Harry, and me play ball in the street. 

21. If it was left to I you should not go. 

22. Them are yours. 

23. Here am me. 

24. Them girls went down town. 

25. This is her. 



SIXTH LESSON — Relative Pronouns 

Of all the relative pronouns only one is declined, as 

follows : — 

Singular Plural 

Nominative who who 

Possessive whose whose 

Objective whom whom 

In the following sentences determine the case of each 
relative pronoun, and state why the form is correct : — 

1. I liked the person whom you introduced. 

2. I saw the man who was here. 

3. The person whose property was sold failed. 



68 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

4. He who loves reading has everything within his reach. 

5. A person trusts those who are his friends. 

6. Those whom we trust should be trustworthy. 

7. This is the man whom I mean. 

8. People love those who are lovable. 

9. I know well whom to compare her with. 

10. He who reigns within himself is more than a king. 

11. Who wins the race shall wear the crown. 

12. He who strives to win shall succeed. 

13. Whom he seeks, he finds. 

14. What you know, tell me, please. 

15. To whom did you give the key. 

16. I well remember her whose name you mention. 

17. The book, that was lost, was mine. 

18. All the animals, which he^ owned, are sold. 

19. The eclipse, which has just passed, was a disappoint- 
ment to some. 

20. We will try to remember .what we have^ learned. 



SEVENTH LESSON 

In the following sentences supply the proper form of 
relative pronouns, and state why the form you select is 
correct. 

Custom has established that the relative pronoun 
who (with zvhose and whom) should be used when per- 
sons are referred to ; that which should be used when 
animals or things are referred to ; that that may be used 
when either a person or a thing is referred to ; that 
what should be used when no antecedent is expressed. 

1. This is the house Jack built. 

2. It was John owned the book. 

3. Mr. Webster was a man of the country was proud. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 69 

4. The boy received the punishment he deserved. 

5. People receive in this world — they deserve. 

6. That man means he says. 

7. He read the note was brought to him. 

8. Have you seen the horse I spoke of? 

9. We, speak to you, are native born. 

10. Give us, oh give us, the man — — sings at his work. 

11. Every man should say he means. 

12. Bacon first discovered the rules by knowledge is 

improved. 

13. I did not know the person called. 

14. He says he means, and means he says. 

15. This is the day on we gained our independence. 

EIGHTH LESSON 

Make up twenty sentences, using the relative pro- 
nouns correctly in as large a variety of ways as possible. 

NINTH LESSON 

Correct the following sentences as to use and form of 
relative pronouns. State the reason for your correc- 
tion : — 

1. Choose who you wish. 

2. I know the man what was here. 

3. Many trees who are found in the West grow very tall. 

4. I can find a man who you can trust. 

5. We all know people whom are trustworthy. 

6. A person believes those which are honest. 

7. Do you know the person what lives here? 

8. I never remember whom she is. 

9. Whom books are these. 

10. We know many people which are tall. 

11. It was Clara which called. 



70 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

12. He always repeats what he hears. 

13. To who are you speaking? 

14. Mary called Fido who was fighting. 

15. Give the book to me, to which it belongs. 

TENTH LESSON 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, what. 
(For declension of these forms see relative pronouns.) 
Determine the case of each interrogative pronoun in 
the following sentences : — 

1. Whose horse have you? 

2. To whom does the horse belong? 

3. Who is there? 

4. What do you think of it? 

5. Which of the girls can sew the best? 

6. Whom do the' people respect? 4 

7. Whose monument is that? 

8. Who addressed the people ? 

9. From whom did you receive the invitation ? 

10. Which of the nations has the largest navy? 

11. Who can be compared with Lincoln? 

12. Whom is he to visit? 

13. What did he say? 

14. Whom did you mean? 

ELEVENTH LESSON 

Supply the proper interrogative in each of the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. Of do you speak? 

2. is to be attempted next? 

3. came here yesterday? 

4. By was she appointed to the place ! 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 71 

5. is the cause of the Me war? 

6. fault is it? 

7. ought to be victorious? 

8. do you consider in the right? 

9. started the idea of arbitration? 

10. With were you talking? 

n. name stands foremost in our country's history? 

12. Concerning were the reports? 

13. For did you call? 

14. did you call for? 

15. Of were you speaking? 



TWELFTH LESSON 

In the following sentences substitute the correct form 
of the interrogative pronoun, stating why you make 
each change : — 

1. Whom do you suppose it was? 

2. Who have we here? 

3. By who was the book written? 

4. Whom was with you? 

5. Of who did you speak? 

6. Who did you see ? 

7. Whom is that? 

8. Whom was it that you saw? 

9. Who does this hat belong to? 
10. Who have I seen? 



THIRTEENTH LESSON 

This and that are the demonstrative pronouns. They 
are never used in the possessive case. 
They are declined : — 



72 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 





Singular 


Singular 


Nominative 


this 


that 


Possessive 






Objective 


this 


that 




Plural 


Plural 


No7ninative 


these 


those 


Possessive 
Objective 


these 


those 



Determine the case and antecedent of each demonstra- 
tive pronoun in the following : — 

i. This is the best book. 

2. Tell me which of these is the prettier. 

3. That is very nice. 

4. I will take this. * 

5. Those are her books, but these are mine. 

6. I am quite sure that that is hers. 

7. If these are not yours, whose are they?^ 

8. This is the child that ran away. 

9. This is where Washington had his headquarters. 
10. That is ivory from Africa. 



FOURTEENTH LESSON 

After stating, with the teacher, all the grammatical 
facts regarding each of the pronouns in the following, 
determine a proper order to use in parsing pronouns : — 

" Hadst thou stayed I must have fled ! " 
This is what the vision said. 

Parse all the pronouns in the following extract from 
a letter written by Phillips Brooks : — 

When the little children in Venice want to take a bath, 
they just go down to the front steps of the house and jump 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 73 

off and swim about in the street. Yesterday I saw a nurse 
standing on the front steps, holding one end of a string, and 
the other end was tied to a little fellow who was swimming up 
the street. When he went too far, the nurse pulled in the 
string, and got her baby home again. Then I met another 
youngster swimming in the street, whose mother had tied him 
to a post by the side of the door, so that when he tried to 
swim away to see another boy who was tied to another post up 
the street, he couldn't, and they had to sing out to one another 
over the water. Is this not a queer city? You are always in 
danger of running over some of the people and drowning 
them, for you go about in a boat instead of a carriage, and use 
an oar instead of a horse. But it is ever so pretty, especially 
the children are very bright and gay and handsome. 



CHAPTER III 
COMPARISON 

FIRST LESSON 

Adjectives are inflected to express degrees of superi- 
ority or of inferiority of one person or thing in com- 
parison with one or more other persons or things. 

There are three degrees of comparison, the positive, 
the comparative, the superlative. 

The positive degree is the simplest form of the 
adjective, and is used when only one person or thing is 
in mind. 

The comparative degree is used when two p'ersons or 
things are in mind for comparison. 

The superlative degree is used when three or more 
persons ox things are in mind for comparison. 

With the teacher make a list of the adjectives in the 
positive degree in the following sentences. 

Make another list of the adjectives in the comparative 
degree. 

Make a third list of the adjectives in the superlative 
degree. 

i. Daniel Webster made tolerable progress in most branches 
of study. 

2. He says he could not make a good declamation in those 
early days. 

3. His kind and excellent teacher tried to encourage him. 

74 



COMPARISON 75 

4. He was a strict observer of order. 

5. He never engaged in college disturbances. 

6. Webster endeavored to hold in mind the most striking 
and most interesting passages that he read. 

7.* Burns is the greatest poet that ever sprung from the 
bosom of the people and died in an humble condition. 

8. Oh, Burns was a good-looking fellow ! He was that ; 
rather black and ill-colored ; but he could not help that, you 
know. He was a strong, manly looking chap, and a sterling, 
substantial fellow. 

9. Burns's person was strong and robust, his manners rustic, 
not clownish. I think his countenance w T as more massive than 
it looks in any of his portraits. 

to. As a poet, Burns stands in the front rank. His con- 
ceptions are all original. His thoughts are new and weighty. 
n. Rum will brutalize the manliest man in Christendom. 

12. The noblest motive is the public good. 

13. The freedom of the mind is the highest form of inde- 
pendence. 

14. A great nation is made only by worthy citizens. 
r5. The man showed an easier way. 

16. The sun is less bright to-day than yesterday. 

17. Santa Claus is the merriest of men. 

18. He has fewer friends than his brother. 

19. That book aroused the least interest of any book recently 
published. 

20. Man is the most exalted of the vertebrates, fish are the 
least exalted. 

21. Crafty men despise studies. 

22. Simpler men admire studies. 

23. The wisest men use studies. 

24. The better a man, the happier he ought to be. 

25. There are many cultivated blossoms less pleasing than 
the dandelion, and their passing away is more spiritual than 
their bloom. 



y6 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

26. To-day is hotter than yesterday. 

27. Let us go to a fairer climate than this. 

28. Ignorance does not always produce ruder manners than 
learning. 

SECOND LESSON 

In the preceding lesson, lists were made of the adjec- 
tives in the positive degree, the comparative degree, 
and the superlative degree. 

Put each positive degree adjective into a sentence 
where two persons or things shall be compared. Make 
a list of those adjectives that, in your opinion, cannot 
properly be used in the comparative degree. 

Put each positive degree adjective into a sentence 
where three or more persons dr things are compared. 

THIRD LESSON 

From the list of comparative degree adjectives made 
in the First Lesson of this chapter, select those that form 
the comparative degree by adding er to the positive 
degree form. 

Write the positive degree form of such adjectives, 
and make the comparative degree from it. 

(a) Make a statement regarding those adjectives 
whose positive degree form ends in e. 

(6) Make a statement regarding those adjectives 
whose positive degree form ends in a single consonant 
preceded by a short vowel. 

(c) Make a statement regarding those adjectives 
whose positive degree form ends in y. 

Give examples of adjectives in each of the above 
classes. 



COMPARISON 



77 



From the list of comparative degree adjectives select 
those which form the comparative degree by placing 
more before the positive degree form. 

What part of speech is more in this use ? 

Illustrate the use of the word more, as a noun, and 
as an adjective. 

It will be found that, in general, the longer adjectives 
(those with three or more syllables) will form their 
comparative degree by the use of more. 

All adjectives may be compared by the use of moi'e 
and most, except irregular adjectives. Euphony will 
determine in most cases whether it is better to use the 
ending er, or the word more. 

The adjective footer illustrates that class of adjectives 
which is compared irregularly. A few of such adjectives 
are given below. 



POSITIVE 


COMPARATIVE 


SUPERLATIVE 


good 


better 




best 


bad) 
ill > 


worse 




worst 


little 


less 




least 


much > 
many > 


more 




most 


late 


latter 


(later) 


last (latest) 


nigh 


nearer 


(nigher) 


next (nighest) 


old 


elder (older) 


eldest (oldest) 


far 


further (farther) 


furthest (farthest) 



FOURTH LESSON 



From the list of superlative degree adjectives made 
in the First Lesson, select those which form the super- 
lative degree by adding est to the positive degree form. 



78 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Select those that form the superlative degree by 
placing most before the positive degree form. 

Select those that express inferiority in comparison. 

Write out the complete comparison of all the adjectives 
in the three above lists. 



FIFTH LESSON 

In the English language, adjectives are not declined. 
The remains of an early declension appear in the 
adjectives this and that, which have the plural forms, 
these and those, when used as adjectives, as they do 
when they are used as pronomis. 

This and that should be used with singular nouns. 
These and those should be used with plural nouns. 

Common Mistakes in the Use of Adjectives 

i. The article a is often improperly used for an 
before a word beginning with a vowel sound. An is 
often improperly used before a word beginning with a 
consonant sound. 

2. These and those are often improperly used to 
modify a singular noun. 

3. The pronoun them is often improperly used for 
the adjectives these and those. 

4. The superlative degree form of the adjective is 
often improperly used where only two persons or things 
are in mind for comparison. 

5. More and most are often improperly used with 
adjectives already having the comparative or superlative 
degree form. 



COMPARISON 79 

Correct the mistakes in the following sentences, and 
give reasons for the corrections : — 

i. An house was lately built on the avenue. 

2. Them boys are too noisy. 

3. Those kind of books are not worth reading. 

4. This was the easiest of the two ways. 

5. Our friend bought an new house. 

6. Which was the greatest man, Webster or Calhoun? 

7. There is a end to every trouble. 

8. Children do not like these sort of games. 

9. Do you see them stars near Orion? 

10. The soldier decided it was best to obey rather than to 
disobey. 

11. That was the most untidiest home I have ever visited. 

12. Them clouds portend rain. 

13. That dog grows more greedier every day. 

14. No one knows who is the most richest man in the world. 

15. A ounce of prevention is worth an pound of cure. 

SIXTH LESSON 

After stating, with the teacher, all the grammatical 
facts regarding each of the adjectives in the following, 
determine a proper form to use in parsing adjectives. 

(Wordsworth wrote of Sir Walter Scott.) 
" Blessings and prayers in nobler retinue 
Than sceptred king or laurelled conqueror knows 
Follow this wondrous potentate." 

Parse all the adjectives in the following extract from 
" Uncle Tom's Cabin": — 

The cabin of Uncle Tom was a small log building. ... In 
front it had a neat garden patch, where, every summer, straw- 
berries, raspberries, and a variety of fruits and vegetables 
flourished under careful tending. The whole front of it was 



8o 



LESSOA T S IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



covered by a large scarlet bignonia, a native multiflora rose, 
which, entwisting and interlacing, left scarce a vestige of the 
rough logs to be seen. Here, also, in summer, various brilliant 
annuals, such as marigolds, petunias, four-o'clocks, found an 
indulgent corner in which to unfold their splendors. 



SEVENTH LESSON 

Adverbs are inflected to express degrees of superiority 
or of inferiority in the relations which they hold. 

There are three degrees of comparison, the positive, 
the comparative, the superlative. 

Adverbs are compared as adjectives are, — 

(a) By adding the endings er and est to the positive 
degree form. 

(b) By placing more and most before the positive 
degree form. 

(c) Irregularly. 

(d) Some adverbs are not capable of comparison 
at all. 

Compare the following adverbs — cheap, skilfully, 
faintly, early, slow, soon. 

A few of the irregularly compared adverbs are given 
below : — 



•OSITIVE 


COMPARATIVE 


SUPERLATIVE 


little 


less 


least 


much 


more 


most 


far 


( farther 
\ further 


f farthest 


( furthest 


late 


later 


f latest 
I last 


well 


better 


best 


ill 


worse 


worst 


nigh > 
near > 


nearer 


next 



COMPARISON- 8 1 

Common Mistakes in the Use of Adverbs 

i. The negative adverb not is sometimes used in- 
correctly when the idea of the sentence is already 
negative. 

2. An adverb is sometimes incorrectly used for an 
adjective, and an adjective is sometimes incorrectly used 
for an adverb. 

3, Adverbs are sometimes incorrectly located in a 
sentence, thus giving an undesired turn to the idea. 
(The same inaccuracy in placing the correlative con- 
junctions, either — or, neither — nor, not only — but also, 
may also be noted here.) 

Correct the mistakes in the following sentences, and 
give reasons for the changes you make : — 

1. Your lessons will not never be learned. 

2'. Such noises sound disagreeable. 

3. The flower smells sweetly. 

4. I do not think you are right. 

5. My aunt is soon expected to arrive. 

6. He only came here to be troublesome. 

7. It is neither necessary to deny it nor to admit it. 

8. Satin feels smoothly. 

9. I will not by no means live meanly. 

10. Nothing can justify ever an untruth. 

11. The ladies were nearly dressed alike. 

12. The gentlemen are not requested to enter the ladies 7 
cabin. 

13. The house either is a church or a school. 

14. The orator speaks very fluent. 

15. Our friend acted very wise. 



82 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



EIGHTH LESSON 

State, with the aid of the teacher, all the grammatical 
facts regarding each of the adverbs in the following 
sentence. Determine a proper order to use in parsing 
adverbs. 

The darkest hour in the life of any young man is when he 
sits down to study how to get money without honestly earning 
it. — Horace Greeley. 

Parse all the adverbs in the following selection from 
" Uncle Tom's Cabin " : — 

Old Bruno, a great Newfoundland, who slept at the end of 
the porch, rose with a low growl, as she came near. She gently 
spoke his name and the animal, an old pet and playmate of 
hers, instantly, wagging his tail, prepared to follow her, though 
apparently revolving much in his simple dog's head, what such 
an indiscreet midnight promenade might mean. Some dim 
ideas of imprudence or impropriety in the measure seemed to 
embarrass him considerably ; for he often stopped as Eliza 
glided forward and looked wistfully, first at her and then at the 
house, and then, as if reassured by reflection, he pattered along 
after her again. A few moments brought them to the window 
of Uncle Tom's cabin, and Eliza, stopping, tapped lightly on 
the window pane. 



CHAPTER IV 
CONJUGATION 

FIRST LESSON 

The inflection of a verb (i.e. all its different forms 
arranged in a systematic order) is called its conjugation. 

Conjugation of the Verb, to love 

Principal Parts 

Present Tense — love Past Tense — loved 

Past Participle — loved 



Active Voice 
Indicative Mode 
; present tense 

Singular Number 
ist Person I love 
2D Person You love (thou lovest) 
3D Person He (she, or it) loves 



Plural Number 
We love 

You love (ye love) 
They love 



PAST TENSE 

I loved We loved 

You loved (thou lovedst) You loved (ye loved ) 

He loved They loved 

FUTURE TENSE 

I shall love We shall love 

You will love (thou wilt love) You will love (ye will 

love) 

He will love They will love 

&3 



8 4 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



Subjunctive Mode 

present tense 

Singular Number 

(If) 1 1 love 

(If) you love 

(If) he loves (if he love) 

PAST TENSE 



Plural Number 

(If) we love 
(If) you love 
(If) they love 



(If) we loved 
(If) you loved 
(If) they loved 



love (you or ye) 



(If) I loved 
(If) you loved 
(If) he loved 

Imperative Mode 
2D Person love (you or thou) 

Infinitive Mode 

present tense 

To love 

PARTICIPLES 

Present — loving Past — loved 

Perfect — having loved 



SECOND LESSON 

The principal parts of a verb are those parts upon 
which are based the entire conjugation. In English 
there are three principal parts. 

Regular Verbs. — Regular verbs are those that form 
their past tense and past participle by adding d or cd to 
the present tense form. 



1 Any word which suggests the idea of doubt may introduce a subjunctive 
mode, as perhaps, possibly, perchance, maybe, etc. 



CONJUGATION 



The following is a list of a few regular verbs : ■ — 



85 



°/'£ 


^/// 7bw£ 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


I. 


appear 


appeared 


appeared 


2. 


reach 


reached 


reached 


3- 


march 


marched 


marched 


4- 


hope 


hoped 


hoped 


5- 


visit 


visited 


visited 


6. 


reply 


replied 


replied 


7. 


hop 


hopped 


hopped 



Irregular Verbs. — - Irregular verbs do not form their 
past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the 
present tense form. 

The following is a list of irregular verbs : — 

1. am (be) was been 

2. arise arose arisen 

3. awake awoke awoke 

4. bear bore bore 

5. beat beat beaten 
6." become became become 

7. begin began begun 

8. bind bound bound 

9. bite bit bitten 

10. blow blew blown 

11. break broke broken 

12. burst burst burst 

13. choose chose chosen 

14. cling clung clung 

15. come came come 

16. do did done 

17. draw drew drawn 

18. drink drank drunk 

19. drive drove driven 

20. eat ate eaten 

21. fall fell fallen 

22. fight fought fought 

23. find found found 



86 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



24. 


fling 


flung 


flung 


25. 


fly 


flew 


flown 


26. 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


27. 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


28. 


give 


gave 


given 


29. 


go 


went 


gone 


3°- 


grow 


grew 


grown 


3i- 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


32. 


hold 


held 


held 


33- 


know 


knew 


known 


34- 


lie (recline) 


lay 


lain 


35- 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


36. 


ring 


rang 


rung 


37- 


rise 


rose 


risen 


38. 


run 


ran 


run 


39- 


see 


saw 


seen 


40. 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


41. 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


42. 


show 


showed 


shown 


43- 


shrink 


shrank 


skrunk 


44- 


sing 


sang 


sung . 


45- 


sink 


sank 


sunk 


46. 


slay 


slew 


slain 


47- 


slide 


slid 


slidden or slid 


48. 


speak # 


spoke 


spoken 


49. 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


50. 


stand 


stood 


stood 


5 1 - 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


52. 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


53- 


sting 


stung 


stung 


54- 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


55- 


strike 


struck 


struck 


56. 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


57- 


swell 


swelled 


swollen or swelled 


58. 


swim 


swam 


swum 


59- 


take 


took 


taken 


60. 


tear 


tore 


torn 


61. 


thrive 


throve or thrived 


thriven or thrived 


62. 


tread 


trod 


trodden 







CONJUGATION 




63- 


wear 


wore 


worn 


6 4 . 


weave 


wove 


woven 


65. 


win 


won 


won 


66. 


write 


wrote 


written 



87 



THIRD LESSON 

A verb is said to agree with its subject in person and 
number. 

In the paradigm of the verb, love, notice the few 
instances in which the verb changes its form to indicate 
this agreement. 

Give the person and number of each verb in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

1. An army of ants will attack large animals. 

2. Dr. William Harvey of England discovered the circula- 
tion of the blood. 

3. The trunk of the olive tree reaches a height of twenty 
or thirty feet. 

* 4. Charlemagne died of pleurisy. 

5. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills. 

6. The very brutes feel and think. 

7. Flower and fern grow on the river bank. 

8. The cruel boy becomes the brutal man. 

9. Speak clearly and think clearly. 

10. Speak clearly, if you speak at all. 

1 1 . We love 

The king who loves the law, respects his bounds, 
And reigns content within them : him we serve 
Freely and with delight, who leaves us free. 

FOURTH LESSON 

When a verb expresses present time, it is in the pres- 
ent tense. 



88 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

When a verb expresses past time, it is in the past 
tense. 

When a verb expresses future time, it is in the future 
tense. 

In what tense is each verb in the following sentences ? 

i. The train starts. 

2. The train will start. 

3. The train started. 

4. Come here. 

5. Will you come here? 

6. Napoleon won many victories. 

7. The boats will sail from the wharf. 

8. The boats sail fast. 

9. They won the race. 

10. Shall I tell my friends ? 

Give sentences in which you will use each of the fol- 
lowing verbs in each of the three tenses : take, write, 
stride, spring, speak. 

The above exercises illustrate the simple tenses. 
There are also compound or perfect tenses — -.present 
perfect, past perfect, future perfect. 

The compound tenses of the verb love are as fol- 
lows : — 

Active Voice 

Indicative Mode 

present perfect tense 

Singular Plural 

I have loved We have loved 

You have loved You have loved 

He has loved They have loved 



CONJUGATION 89 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

I had loved We had loved 

You had loved You had loved 

He had loved They had loved 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall have loved We shall have loved 

You will have loved You will have loved 

He will have loved They will have loved 

Subjunctive Mode 

present perfect tense 

(If) I have loved (If) we have loved 

(If) you have loved (If) you have loved 

(If) he has loved (If) they have loved 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

(If) I had loved (If) we had loved 

(If) you had loved (If) you had loved 

. (If) he had loved (If) they had loved 

Infinitive Mode 
To have loved 

Refer to the conjugation of the auxiliary verb have, 
and explain how the perfect tenses are formed. 

Conjugate the perfect tenses of the verbs, know, ride, 
bite. 

Give the person, number, and tense of the verbs in 
the following sentences : — 

1. A grain of gold will gild a great surface. 

2. Solomon has received great praise for his wisdom. 

3. Will he go or stay? 

4. Icebergs often come to shore. 



90 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

5. Persons have kept themselves alive by baths. 

6. The funeral pageant of Alexander the Great required 
two years for preparation. 

7. Gladstone had acquired in youth a genuine love of 
reading. 

8. The expansive power of steam makes it useful 

9. You have learned the laws of health. 

10. Obey them. 

11. Plants drink with their leaves. 

12. We have walked two miles. 

13. Our friends walked two miles also. 

14. Will you go with us ? 

15. I have gone far enough. 

FIFTH LESSON 

A verb used in a direct statement, or in a question, is 
in the indicative mode. 

A verb used in a statement implying a doubt, or used 
in an indirect command or a request, is in the subjunctive 
mode. 

A verb used in giving a direct command is in the 
imperative mode. 

That part of the verb that is used with the preposition 
to (either expressed or understood), is in the infinitive 
mode. 

What is the mode of each of the verbs in the following 
sentences, and why ? 

1. John went to school. 

2. Has John gone to school ? 

3. Even if it is raining, we must go. 

4. If it rains, you must not go. 

5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 



CONJUGATION 9 1 

6. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 

7. Peace be with you. 

8. Oh ! that we had peace. 

9. If John were studious, he could learn. 

10. You may hear the wind at night. 

1 1. Had I your chance, I would seize it. 

12. If what I say is not true, you may not trust me in future. 

13. Unless we obey we cannot command. 

14. Speak not evil of the absent, because it is unjust. 

15. Who is President? 

SIXTH LESSON 

When a verb expressing action has for its subject the 
doer of the action, the verb is said to be in the active 
voice. 

When a verb expressing action has for its subject the 
person or thing that receives the action, the verb is said 
to be in the passive voice. 

Only verbs expressing action can be said to have 
voice. Why ? 

In the following sentences which verbs are in the 
active voice and which are in the passive voice ? 

1. He commanded the men to halt. 

2. John hit the dog. 

3. Yet a few days, and thee 
The all-beholding sun shall see no more, 
In all his course. 

4. Which way shall I fly? 

5. The government must compel obedience. 

6. The injury was done accidentally by his friends. 

7. Oxygen is breathed by man. 

8. The plants breathe in carbon dioxide. 



92 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

9. No dishonest person was ever made happy by success. 

10. The sun is shining to-day. 

11. The clouds have obscured the sun. 

12. And there came an angel who had a bright key. 

13. The teardrop who can blame? 

14. A prize was promised by the committee. 

15. It is said that the ship is wrecked. 

SEVENTH LESSON 

The passive voice is formed by uniting the past 
participle of the main verb with the proper form of the 
auxiliary verb to be. 

(a) Active voice — I hold a stick. 

•t 

(b) Passive voice — A stick is held by me. 

Turn to the conjugation of the verb love. With the 
help of the teacher change each form into the corre- 
sponding passive form. Write out all these- forms by 
yourself, thus making the passive conjugation of the 
verb love. 

Compare sentences (a) and (b) of this lesson. They 
mean exactly the same thing, but (b) is expressed in the 
passive form. When a sentence with the verb in the 
active voice is changed so that the verb appears in 
the passive voice, what becomes of the object? What 
becomes of the subject? 

Give the passive forms of the following without 
changing the meaning : — 

1. You sing the tune. 

2. You sang the tune. 

3. I will sing the tune. 

4. I have sung the tune. 



CONJUGATION 93 

5. He may sing the tune. 

6. We had sung the tune. 

7. James ran a race. 

8. The dog saved the child. 

9. The heat broke the chimney. 
10. Exercise produces health. 

Give the active forms of the following without chang- 
ing the meaning : — 

1. Tidings are brought by him. 

2. News will be brought by them. 

3. The letters were brought by me. 

4. The disaster was caused by the storm. 

5. The rabbit was shot by the hunter. 

6. The gates were opened by the enemy. 

7. The gates will be opened by the enemy. 

8. The gates are opened by the enemy. 

9. The gates should be opened by the enemy. 

10. The " Chambered Nautilus" was written by Holmes. 

In the following change the verbs from the active 
voice to the passive, or from the passive voice to the 
active, without changing the meaning of the sen- 
tences : — 

1. The bell was rung by the horse. 

2. The book was bought by me. 

3. The cyclone has destroyed the city. 

4. The house which we occupy has been sold by the owner. 

5. He is well spoken of by those who know him. 

6. Ether will render a person unconscious. 

7. How do they make silver harder? 

8. Can gray hairs render folly venerable ? 

9. We find a variety of people everywhere. 
10. The signal was flashed by the sailors. 



94 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

EIGHTH LESSON 

Infinitives are those parts of a verb that are used with 
the preposition to. This preposition is, however, some- 
times understood. 

There is one infinitive, the present. This has a 
perfect form. Both the simple and perfect forms are 
found in the passive voice of verbs which express action. 

Turn to the lists of regular and irregular verbs. Make 
all the infinitives for each of the first five verbs of each list. 

The use of the infinitive is varied, as we have seen in 
Part I. 

i. It may be used like a noun, as the subject of a 
verb or the object of a verb. 

Use the infinitive, to play, in these two ways. 

2. It may be used like an adjective. 

Use the infinitive, to play, as an adjective. * 

3. It may be used like an adverb. 

Use the infinitive, to play, as an adverb. ' 

4. It may be used with the following auxiliary verbs 
to complete them — shall, will, do, may, can, must, 
ought, might, could, would, should, let. (In modern 
English the preposition to is omitted when the infini- 
tives are used with these verbs, except with ought.) See 
Tenth Lesson of this chapter. 

Explain the use of infinitives in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. To train citizens is not the work of a day. 

2. To remain calm during the excitement was impossible. 

3. Each one ought to improve himself. 

4. No one can please everybody. 



CONJUGATION 95 

5. Many attempts to construct flying machines have proved 
unsuccessful. 

6. He had the courage to brave the storm. 

7. His friends were sorry to refuse assistance. 

8. His friends rejoiced to give aid. 

9. Many pilgrims travelled far to atone for their sins. 

10. He worked hard to keep the wolf from the door. 

11. Will you run quickly? 

12. Let me go. 

13. My friend did go away. 

14. The Romans taught the Britons to. make bricks. 

15. To persevere is to succeed. 

Infinitives may be modified by adverb words and 
phrases, and they may, when transitive, take objects. 

In the above sentences select the objects and modifiers 
of the infinitives. 

NINTH LESSON 

There are two simple participles, the present and the 
past. There are also perfect and passive forms made 
from these simple forms. 

Form the simple, the perfect, and the passive parti- 
ciples of the second five verbs in the lists of regular and 
of irregular verbs. 

Participles may be modified by adverbs, and may, 
when they are transitive, take objects. 

In the following sentences select the participles, state 
their use in the sentence, and point out their modifiers 
and objects. 

1. The singing birds woke me in the morning. 

2. The breakers, dropping sand and pebbles, built up an 
embankment. 

3. My father, pleased by my industry, granted my request. 



96 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

4. The crushed flower yields perfume. 

5. Having recovered from the injury, he returned home. 

6. Being broken in spirit, Napoleon retreated from Waterloo. 

7. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

8. The trench, once dug across the field, is now filled up. 

9. Do you see the little girl blowing bubbles? 
10. We saw the train starting from the station. 

In addition to their use as adjectives, participles are 
used with auxiliary verbs to give a particular turn of 
expression. 

1. The present participle is used with the different 
forms of the verb to be, to express the idea of continuity 
of action. This form of expression is often called the 
progressive conjugation. 

1. The wind is blowing, 

2. The fire was burning. 

3. The river will be flowing always. 

4. I am going away. 

5. Are you enjoying your vacation? 

2. The past participle is used with the different forms 
of the verb to be\ to make the passive voice. (See 
exercises in Sixth and Seventh Lessons of this chapter.) 

1. The snow is blown into drifts. 

2. The house was burned to the ground. 

3. The river was stopped by a dam. 

4. I shall be reported for idleness. 

5. Have your lessons been learned? 

3. The past participle is used with the different forms 
of the verb to have, to make the perfect tenses. (See 
exercises in Fourth Lesson of this chapter.) 



CONJUGATION- 97 

1. I have finished my work. 

2. He has mentioned the matter to me. 

3. They had not given up hope when we saw them last. 

4. He was to have finished his work before you came. 

5. It has been reported that some accident has happened. 

In the following sentences explain the use of the par- 
ticiples : — 

1. Are you eating your dinner? 

2. I was eating it. 

3. Our friends were injured. 

4. They were not expecting any accidents. 

5. What were you doing? 

6. Two places have claimed the ashes of Columbus. 

7. The heat of the sun is diminished. 

8. The sun has set. 

9. He will have finished his work by sunset. 
10. The boys had been bathing ten minutes. 

TENTH LESSON 

There are a few verbs that are used sometimes to help 
in the conjugation of other verbs. When they are thus 
used they are called auxiliary verbs. The verb that is 
thus assisted is called the main or principal verb. 

The auxiliary verbs are of three classes : — 

(a) shall, will, do, may, can, must, ought, might, could, 
would, sliould, let, make. See Eighth Lesson of this 
chapter. 

These auxiliaries are used with the present infinitive 
of the main verb (generally without the preposition to), 
as in the following sentences : — 

1. We will go. 

2. Do you ride on the cars? 



98 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

3. I shall eat my dinner. 

4. My friend did not say that. 

5. Palissy, the potter, did succeed. 

6. Why should you speak so indistinctly? 

7. A patriot should defend his country. 

8. We ought to deal with others fairly. 

9. An autocrat can do as he pleases. 

10. Could you see yourself truly you would be surprised. 

(b) The auxiliary have, used with the past participle 
of the main verb, as in the following sentences. (See 
Fourth and Ninth Lessons of this chapter.) 

1. The Civil War has made a united country. 

2. Jason had named his vessel The Argo. 

3. Railroads have done much for the country. 

(c) The auxiliary verb be> which is used (1) with the 
past participle of the main verb to make the passive 
voice; and (2) with the present participle of the main 
verb to make the progressive form of conjugation. (See 
Sixth, Seventh, and Ninth Lessons of this chapter.) 

1. The sunshine is pouring into the room. 

2. The cultivation of coffee was introduced into Arabia 
from Africa. 

3. A torn jacket is soon mended. 

4. The waves are rolling up on the sand. 

5. Socrates and Plato were celebrated for their wisdom. 

Conjugation of the Verb, to have 

Principal Parts 

Present — have Past — had 

Past Participle — had 



CONJUGATION- 99 

Indicative Mode 





PRESENT TENSE 


Singular 


Plural 


I have 


We have 


You have 


You have 


He has 


They have 




PAST TENSE 


I had 


We had 


You had 


You had 


He had 


They had 




FUTURE TENSE 


I shall have 


We shall have 


You will have 


You will have 


He will have 


They will have 




Subjunctive Mode 




PRESENT TENSE 


(If) I have 


(If) we have 


(If) you have 


(If) you have 


(If) he has (if he 


have) (If) they have 




PAST TENSE 


(If) I had 


(If) we had 


(If) you had 


(If) you had 


(If) he had 


(If) they had 



Imperative Mode 
Singular — have Plural — have 

Infinitive Mode 
Present — to have 

participles 
Present — having Past — had 



LoFC. 



100 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Perfect Forms 

Indicative Mode 

present perfect 

Singular Plural 

I have had We have had 

You have had You have had 

He has had They have had 

PAST PERFECT 

I had had We had had 

You had had You had had 

He had had They had had 

FUTURE PERFECT 

I shall have had We shall have had 

You will have had , You will have had 

He will have had They will tiave had 

Subjunctive Mode 

present perfect 

(If) I have had (If) we have had 

(If) you have had (If) you have had 

(If) he has had (if he have had) (If) they have had 

PAST PERFECT 

(If ) I had had (If) we had had 

(If) you had had (If) you had had 

(If) he had had (If) they had had 

Infinitive Mode 
Present Perfect— to have had 

PARTICIPLE 

Present Perfect— having had 



CONJUGATION 



IOI 



Conjugation of the Verb, to be 
Principal Parts 

Present — am or be Past — was 

Past Participle — been 

Indicative Mode 





present tense 


Singular 


Plural 


I am 


We are 


You are 


You are 


He is 


They are 




past tense 


I was 


We were 


You were 


You were 


He was 


They were 




FUTURE TENSE 


I shall be 


We shall be 


You will be 


You will be 


He will be 


They will be 



Subjunctive Mode 



PRESENT TENSE 



(If) I am (if I be) 
(If) you are (if you be) 
(If) he is (if he be) 



(If) we are (if we be) 
(If) you are (if you be) 
(If) they are (if they be) 



PAST TENSE 



(If) I was (if I were) 

(If) you were (if you were) 

(If) he was (if he were) 



(If) we were 
(If) you were 
(If) they were 



Imperative Mode 
Singular — be Plural — be 



102 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Infinitive Mode 
Present — to be 

PARTICIPLES 

Present — being Past — been 

The perfect tenses are formed in the regular way. 

ELEVENTH LESSON 

In the following sentences select the auxiliary verbs, 
and state what form of the principal verb is used : — 

i. The farmer will plough hisj field. 

2. The train has moved away. 

3. Girls are judged more studious than boys. 

4. Have you heard the news? „ 

5. The wind may blow furiously. 

6. The dikes of Holland ought to receive close attention. 

7. One might improve his work by greater care. 

8. All should learn the lesson of obedience. 

9. The century is closing. 

10. The task is finished. 

11. Does the lark sing at night? 

12. My friend did not go. 

13. You are not expected to read everything that is recom- 
mended. 

14. You should select the best books. 

15. Then you could read them carefully. 

16. The fixed stars are known by their twinkling light, and 
they are so called because they do not change their places. 

17. I do not know how old you are. 

18. Can you speak a foreign language? 

19. Night has gone and day has come. 

20. The sun is rising. 



CONJUGATION- 103 

TWELFTH LESSON 

The following are a few of the common mistakes 
made in the use of verbs. 

(a) In forming perfect tenses, the past tense of the 
principal verb is often incorrectly used for the past par- 
ticiple. 

(b) The past participle is often incorrectly used for 
the past tense. 

(c) Verbs do not always agree, as they should, with 
their subject in number. 

(d) Will, in the first person, means determination, in 
the second and third person, intention. Shall, in the first 
person, means intention, and in the second and third 
persons, determination. These uses are often confused. 

(e) Can is often incorrectly used for may. 

(f) The verbs lie and lay, sit and set are often con- 
fused in their use. 

Correct the mistakes in the verbs in the following 
sentences, and state why you make each change : — 

1. The boy has beat his dog. 

2. My friend had began his task. 

3. The night has came. 

4. The game begun at three o'clock. 

5. The collection of pictures are beautiful. 

6. The rain and snow has given us a bad day. 

7. Neither Henry nor Thomas have been untruthful. 

8. I will drown, nobody shall help me. 

9. He will go, for I shall compel him. 

10. Children shall do wrong in spite of all we can say. 

1 1. Can I study now? 

12. The water pipes are froze. 



104 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

13. Who has rang the bell? 

14. You can go to the door. 

15. The cat laid before the fire. 

16. The sick person is laying down. 

17. The setting hen is on her nest. 

18. The lady invited her guests to set down. 

19. Have you forgot your books? 

20. A large flock of birds were in sight. 

THIRTEENTH LESSON 

With the teacher's help state all the grammatical 
facts about each of the three verbs in the following 
sentence. Arrange these facts in some logical order. 

Men hurry to see the procession passing by. 

Such a statement of grammatical facts is called pars- 
ing the verb. 

Parse each verb in the following sentences : — 

1. The town was destroyed by an earthquake. 

2. Marlborough gained many victories. 

3. By whom was the ink spilled? 

4. The wind is roaring loudly. 

5. The ship will sail to-morrow. 

6. The farmer is sowing oats. 

7. Though he is a bad boy, his parents love him. 

8. Has John found his hat? 

9. Come, live with me. 

10. Grieve not, my child, chase all thy fears away. 

11. If I could run fast enough, I should win the race. 

12. My friend is learning to sew. 

13. To master a language you have to work hard. 

14. The waves dashing upon the beach floated the boat out 
to sea. 

15. The prisoner, proved innocent, was discharged. 



CONJUGATION- 105 

FOURTEENTH LESSON 
Parse all the verbs in the following selection : — 

THE SPIDER AND THE FLY 

" Will you walk into my parlor ? " 

Said a spider to a fly. 
" 'Tis the prettiest little parlor 

That ever you did spy. 
The way into my parlor 

Is up a winding stair, 
And I have many pretty things 

To show when you are there." 
" Oh, no, no ! " said the little fly, 

" To ask me is in vain : 
For who goes up your winding stair, 

Can ne'er come down again." 

" I'm sure you must be weary 

With soaring up so high ; 
Will you rest upon my little bed ? " 

Said the spider to the fly. 
" There are pretty curtains drawn around, 

The sheets are fine and thin ; 
And if you like to rest awhile, 

I'll snugly tuck you in." 
" Oh, no, no ! " said the little fly, 

" For I've often heard it said, 
They never, never wake again 

Who sleep upon your bed." 

Review of Inflections 
FIRST LESSON 

i. What is inflection ? 

2. What parts of speech are inflected ? 



106 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

3. What parts of speech are not inflected? 

4. What is the inflection of nouns and pronouns 
called ? 

5. Inflect a noun. 

6. Use the noun man as subject in a sentence. 
Parse the noun. 

7. Use the noun man as object. Parse it. 

8. Use the noun man as possessive plural. Parse it. 

9. Use the noun man in apposition. Parse it. 

10. Inflect all the personal pronouns. 

11. Use each form of the personal pronouns in a 
sentence. Parse the pronoun in each sentence. 

12. Inflect the relative pronouns. 

13. Use each form of the relative pronoun in a sen- 
tence. Parse each relative pronoun. 

14. How is the possessive singular of nouns formed ? 

15. Give five examples illustrating the formation of 
the possessive singular of nouns. 

16. How is the possessive plural of nouns formed? 

17. Give five examples illustrating the different ways 
of forming the possessive plural of nouns. 

18. What is the inflection of adjectives and adverbs 
called ? 

19. What three ways are there of inflecting adjectives 
and adverbs ? 

20. Give three examples illustrating each way with 
adjectives. 

21. Give three examples illustrating each way with 
adverbs. 

22. What is the inflection of a verb called ? 

23. What are the principal parts of a verb ? 



CONJUGATION 107 

24. How many such parts has an English verb ? 

25. Explain why in some foreign languages a verb 
has more principal parts than an English verb has. 

26. What is a regular verb ? 

27. Give examples. 

28. What other name is sometimes used instead of 
the name " regular " ? 

29. What is an irregular verb ? 

30. Give examples. 

31. What other name is sometimes used instead of 
the name " irregular " ? 

32. What is an auxiliary verb ? 

33. What auxiliary verb is used in making perfect 
tenses ? 

34. What part of the main verb is invariably used in 
perfect tenses ? Illustrate. 

35. What auxiliary verb is used in making passive 
voice forms ? 

36. What part of the main verb is invariably used in 
passive voice forms ? Illustrate. 

37. Do all verbs have a passive voice ? 

38. What is meant by the progressive form of con- 
jugation ? 

39. Is such a form active or passive ? 

40. Give five examples of verbs in the progressive 
form. 

41. What auxiliary is used in making the emphatic 
form of conjugation ? 

42. Give all the auxiliaries which are followed by the 
infinitive of the principal verb. 

43. What is mode ? Name each one. Illustrate. 



108 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

44. What is tense ? Name each one. Illustrate. 

45. What is number ? Name each one. Illustrate. 

46. What determines the number and person of a 
verb ? 

47. What is parsing ? 

48. What are the only facts that can be mentioned in 
parsing coordinate and subordinate conjunctions ? 

SECOND LESSON 
Parse all the words in the following sentences : — 

1. Boys become men. 

2. Washington was born rich. 

3. Lincoln worked on a farm.* 

4. Both became great men. 

5. Poverty may be no tpisfortune. 

6. Gone are my friends. 

7. At what time in the month is the full moon? * 

8. Statesmen should not be mere politicians. 

9. Express clearly what you know. 

10. You can express clearly if you know thoroughly. 

11. Once to every man and nation comes the moment to 
decide. 

12. Get what you can, and what you get hold. 

13. The Yankee boy, before he's sent to school, 
Well knows the mysteries of that magic tool, 
The pocket-knife. 

14. To know a little of anything gives neither satisfaction 
nor credit. 

15. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. 

16. Drink deep, or taste not the Castalian spring. 

1 7. Pleasure is the rock upon which most young people split. 

18. Most people have ears, but few have judgment. 



PARSING 109 

19. The knowledge of mankind is a very useful knowledge 
for everybody. 

20. You must be respectable if you would be respected. 

21. Judge individuals from your own knowledge of them, 
not from sex, profession, or religion. 

22. He who has not truth has no good quality. 

23. Cato did not think himself born for himself only, but 
for all mankind. 

24. A fool never has thought, a madman has lost it, and an 
absent-minded man is, for the time, without it. 

25. Lack of attention, which is really lack of thought, is 
either folly or madness. 

26. Learning, honor, and virtue are absolutely necessary if 
you wish to gain the esteem and admiration of mankind. 

27. Politeness and good breeding are equally necessary, if 
you wish to make yourself welcome and agreeable in conver- 
sation and common life. 

28. Good manners makes society easy and pleasing. 

29. Good sense must, in many cases, determine good 
breeding. 

30. Distrust and caution are the parents of security. 

31. Beauty and folly are old companions. 

32. Read much, but not too many books. 

33. When knaves fall out, honest men get their goods. 

34. He that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce 
overtake his business at night. 

35. Eat few suppers and you'll need few medicines. 

36. If you'd be beloved make yourself amiable. 

37. Beware little expenses ; a small leak will sink a great ship. 

38. He that resolves to mend hereafter, resolves not to 
mend at all. 

39. Not to progress is to retrogress. 

40. The utility of history consists principally in the examples 
it gives us of the virtues and vices of those who have gone 
before us. 



110 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

THIRD LESSON 

Correct the following sentences, and explain the 
reason for the changes : — 

i. This is an hard saying. 

2. Things of these sort are easily understood. 

3. She reads well and writes neat. 

4. I bought them books at a very moderate price. 

5. Give him a soon and decisive answer. 

6. I will not by no means entertain a spy. 

7. The messenger went direct to the place. 

8. A nail well drove will support a great weight. 

9. We admire the lustre of diamonds set in gold. 

10. You have wrote the correct answer. 

11. Them that seek wisdom will find it. 

12. She and me are of the same age. 

13. Whom was in the house? Me. 

14. We was disappointed. 

15. Circumstances alters cases. 

16. The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 

17. To live soberly, righteously, piously, are required of all 
men. 

18. The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. . 

19. Time and tide waits for no man. 

20. Each day bring its duties. 

21. It is not me. 

22. Mans chief good is an upright mind. 

23. Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 

24. The church is known by it's spire. 

25. Who did he ask for? 

26. I, being young, they deceived. 

27. We are as well as when you was here. 

28. There was more persons than one in this affair. 

29. This is an useful invention. 

30. Great improvements has been made. 



CONJUGATION III 

31. They have chose the wise course. 

32. Do not deny that you done it. 

33. Your words sound harshly. 

34. This teacher instruct my brother and they to read. 

35. Every tree have put forth leaves. 

36. This am the best answer which I can give. 

37. Do you know them boys? 

38. The orator what spoke last night is famous. 

39. The ship did not sail in no other direction. 

40. Had we knew it we should not have went. 

41. Them's my opinions. 

42. Will I be there in time? 

43. I will be drowned ; nobody shall help me. 

44. This is very easy done. 

45. When will we go? 

46. Was it her? 

47. She suffers more than me. 

48. The society of these places are always changing. 

49. Economy, not mean savings, bring wealth. 

50. The nobility were present. 

5 1 . He came soon after you had went away. 

52. We had rode only a short distance. 

53. She run till she was forced to lay down. 

54. Between you and I, he is losing his mind. 

55. They that are diligent I will reward. 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 

GENERAL 

The important object in the study of elementary 
grammar is to give to the pupil an opportunity to exer- 
cise and develop his grammatical sense and judgment. 

The sense is developed by a study of each principle 
by itself freed from confusing difficulties. 

The judgment is exercised by reviews, involving two 
or more principles, and by applications of principles in 
original composition. 

The first lesson in each chapter is intended for study 
in the class with the teacher. 

It will be noticed that the word, the phrase, and the 
clause are treated together in the different relations. 

Thoroughness is a relative term. From one point of 
view few things are ever known thoroughly, that is, 
through and through. As far as it is possible let the 
preliminary discussions be clear and concrete. Matters 
of fact should be learned exactly. That he is a per- 
sonal' pronoun admits of no discussion. But in the sen- 
tence, " Crime costs much," much may be classed as a 
pronoun, or as an adverb, or even as an adjective, and 
in such a case a difference of opinion is wholesome. 

If a pupil thinks, but seems to come to wrong conclu- 
sions, he will be better off, and the work of the class 

112 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 113 

will progress with greater elasticity if he is not forced 
from his position. The error may remain until a fuller 
knowledge forces the pupil to correct himself. 

In short, thoroughness should not be pushed so far 
as to repress the individual, or to get in the way of a 
consciously enlarging view of the subject, which is the 
life of study. The important ends to be gained are 
freedom, courage, and strength in thinking. 

" Writing maketh an exact man," therefore it is a 
great help in any study to write down the results of 
one's thinking. 

(a) Such writing should be done in an economical 
way. There appears to be an unnecessary waste of 
time and energy, as well as a hindrance to thinking, 
when a pupil copies a whole sentence in order to record 
his judgment regarding one fact about it. It would also 
seem to be wasteful to learn a complete sign language 
by' which to express the results of one's thinking. For 
this reason elaborate systems of diagraming may 
become uneconomical as well as mechanical. 

(J?) Such writing should, as far as possible, indicate 
the process of thought. In this way the writing not 
only expresses the result, but actually assists in reach- 
ing a correct result. 

Attention is called to the suggestions in " Notes and 
Discussions " under each chapter for making written 
lessons. 

It may be helpful to clear teaching to recall that all 
judgments in common life, in the courts of justice and 
in scientific studies, including grammar, are based pri- 
marily upon a recognition of differences. In grammar 



114 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

these judgments are illustrated in the determination of 
the parts of speech. They are equally important in the 
study of word relations. 

In the first chapter, when the pupil selects the word 
or phrase that makes a statement, he has shown the 
ability to appreciate the difference between the use of 
words making statements and other uses. This may be 
called a first relation discrimination or judgment. 

In the second chapter the pupil needs to judge which 
words properly answer the question, "who or what." 
This is more difficult than the former act of judgment. 
It may be called a second relation discrimination or 
judgment. ^ 

In the third chapter another and still more complex 
act of judgment is involved, which may be called a third 
relation discrimination or judgment. 

The modifying and connecting relations are suffi- 
ciently distinct from the other relations and from each 
other to make it possible to speak of them as a fourth 
and fifth relation discrimination or judgment. 

The value of note-taking may be overestimated. It 
is important to have such drill on fundamentals, that 
these become mental tools. Constant reliance on notes 
is weakening. 

PART I 

Introductory Chapter on Phrasing 

This short discussion of phrasing has been placed at 
the beginning of the book, because at the outset the 
pupil should appreciate the fact that all grammatical 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 115 

relations, that is all the bonds that hold words together 
in a sentence, are sense, that is meaning, relations. 

Pupils will not know what is meant by sense relations. 
It may be explained that relation is a bond. There are 
bonds of blood — father to son, etc. ; of form — circle 
to semi-circle ; of color — dark blue to light blue. The 
grammatical bond is that of sense. 

The sense relation of words in a sentence is revealed 
only by getting at the meaning of the writer. In ele- 
mentary grammatical study, pupils will often rearrange 
words in a sentence and produce sense, but this may 
not be the sense intended by the writer. This question 
should then always be in mind, " What meaning did the 
ivriter intend ? " 

Such a relation must be felt. It cannot be reasoned 
out. . Therefore grammatical training should be given 
up largely to creating opportunities for the exercise of 
the judgment under conditions that will not be confus- 
ing. 

It is believed that the simple, direct statements in this 
book, and the exercises from which confusing difficul- 
ties have been removed, will assist in creating the 
proper conditions. The teacher should be sure, how- 
ever, that the pupils start each lesson with clearly 
understood premises. Free discussions in the class 
are often the best means of establishing these prem- 
ises. 

The discussions here suggested derive their sole 
value from a liberal spirit and a mastery of the sub- 
ject by the teacher. The pupil's mind should be 
allowed to work freely, and other conclusions than 



Il6 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

those reached by the teacher should be allowed to 
stand. It is one of the peculiar beauties and valuable 
features of grammar that on many points two persons 
may differ in their judgments and yet both be right. 

The Sixth Lesson is designed to give an opportunity 
to review prepositional and participial phrases. This 
book assumes a working knowledge of the parts of 
speech. Some pupils entering the last grade of the 
grammar school will not possess this knowledge. Much 
supplementary work at this point may therefore be 
necessary. 

It will be well to have the class memorize a list of 
twelve or fifteen prepositions, and to drill on making 
present and past participles from a long list of common 
verbs. 

The idea of double classification of words, phrases, 
and clauses is met with here for the first time. A 
phrase may be prepositional or participial according to 
its structure, i.e. because it contains a preposition or a 
participle; and at the same time it may be subjective, 
objective, adjective, or adverbial according to its use. 

Chapter I 

Before any lesson is assigned, have the class see by 
discussion that a sentence is a structure (strua, to build, 
to fit together), like a house, or an animal body, or a 
plant. Such a discussion would bring out the fact that 
in a structure some parts are more important than 
others. An arch has a keystone ; a building, a corner 
stone; an animal body, a brain. 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 117 

This is a good place to broaden the grammatical 
horizon. Grammar is the science of language. Science 
is classified knowledge. Language has grown with the 
development of the human race. New words have 
been invented as new ideas have arisen which needed 
expression. (Pupils may give numerous illustrations of 
these developments in language — telephone, macad- 
amize, etc.) 

Language has therefore grown without any reference 
to grammar. Grammar is simply a statement of the 
facts of language, and is helpful in showing us the 
nature of language, the forms of expression that 
custom has established as correct, and so indirectly 
we are helped to use language after the established 
forms. 

Considerable practice will be needed before pupils 
are able readily to select the main verb in a clause or 
sentence. It will be most economical to have this 
practice largely with declarative sentences. In declar- 
ative sentences the main verb is a predicate verb, that 
is, it is the statement word or phrase of the sentence or 
clause. 

If the class does not easily recognize a clause or the 
members of a compound sentence, some time should be 
devoted to practice in selecting them. Examples will 
be found in abundance in the chapter on Connecting 
Relations. This, however, is not the place to enter 
into an analysis of clauses and members, or to discuss 
at length compound and complex sentences. 

The following scheduled form is suggested as a plan 
for written lessons on predicate verbs. 



Ti8 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 





SECOND 


LESSON 


l. OF SENTENCE 




PREDICATE VERB 


I 




made 


2 




made 


II 




have visited 


16 




f has learned 




1 does surmount 






J is 

{ has found 


l 9 




etc. 







THIRD LESSON 

No particular name is given to the main verb in imper- 
ative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences, so that 
any names thought by the class to be appropriate may 
be adopted. # 

In an interrogative sentence the verb is most easily 
found by turning the sentence into the declarative form. 

Chapter II 

Here the pupil will meet his first serious difficulty. 
He will need considerable practice to gain facility in 
applying the test question for finding the simple sub- 
ject, and in selecting the word, phrase, or clause that 
answers the question. If the teacher insists that the 
question be asked and answered aloud every time it is 
necessary to find a subject, valuable practice in clear 
thinking will be had, and opportunities for guessing will 
be diminished. 

Some practice should be given in writing fully the 
process of thought, as follows : — 

Air is a gas. 

This sentence makes a statement, and is, therefore, a 
declarative sentence. 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 119 

The word, is, is the statement word, therefore is is the 
predicate verb. 

Who or what is ? The sentence states that air is. 
Therefore air is the simple subject. 

A quality of judgment is here required that is very 
little developed in a child of fourteen years of age. 
Patience, time, multiplied opportunities for pupils to do 
original thinking are important. 

Explain why the double form of question, " who or 
what," is used. 

The exercises in the First Lesson illustrate the differ- 
ent forms and positions that a subject may have. Have 
pupils realize that grammatical relations depend not at 
all on the position of the words and phrases, but entirely 
upon the sense of the whole group. 

c.e. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
Slowly o'er the lea winds the lowing herd. 

These two sentences have exactly the same meaning, 
therefore the grammatical relations of the words and 
phrases are the same in each, although the order is 
different. 

Have pupils make sentences, and then change the 
order of the words, keeping the same meaning. 

This is a good place to review the fact that the same 
word may be several parts of speech, according to its 
grammatical relation in a sentence. 

c.e. The dog barks (dog, a noun). 

The dog meat was poor (dog, an adjective). 

The detectives dog the criminal's steps (dog, a verb). 



120 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Allow pupils to make illustrations of their own. 

The Second Lesson is planned partly to give a review 
of the parts of speech. The pupils should be tested 
upon these before the lesson is assigned. The pronouns 
will probably give trouble. If they do, lists may be 
given for memorizing. 

Personal pronouns — I, you> he, she, it (in all their 
forms). 

Demonstrative pronouns — this, that, these, those. 

Interrogative pronouns — who, which, zvliat. 

Relative pronouns — zvlw, which, what, that. 

When the subject is referred to, the simple subject is 
meant. It is not correct to speak of the subject of a 
sentence. Verbs alone take subjects. One may, how- 
ever, properly speak of the subject in a sentence. 



Chapter III 

See suggestions under Chapter II. 

Some exercise should be given in writing a full state- 
ment of the process of thought. 

An economical plan for brief statement is as fol- 
lows : — 

THIRD LESSON 



NO. OF SENTENCE 



15 



MAIN VERB 



learns 

(a) enjoy 

(b) make 
(a) said 
(d) know 
(a) love 
(£) obey 



OBJECT ( — WHOM OR WHAT?) 



to write 

what we make for ourselves 

what 

" Know thyself." 

thyself 

country 

laws 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 121 

When the object is referred to, the simple object is 
meant. 

Verbs of asking, commanding, teaching, etc., may take 
two objects. 

i. The man asked him a question. 

2. The woman taught the girl her lesson. 

3. The general commanded the men to fire. 

Review of Main Verbs, etc. 

A definition should be as simple as possible. There 
are numerous definitions of a sentence. A good working 
definition is, " a sentence is the expression of a complete 
thought." The distinction between a sentence and a 
paragraph may be reemphasized and illustrated. 

A paragraph is a series of sentences about one topic. 

Both of these definitions are not above criticism, but 
they are good working definitions for children. 

The discussion of classification opened in Questions 
•10-18 is important. It should be carried far enough 
for pupils to understand that grammatical classifications, 
like those of other sciences, and in everyday affairs, 
are based on similarity of qualities or of uses. The 
same thing may be classified in many different ways. 
Ex. An animal may be a man, classified according to 
structure ; and at the same time a grocer, classified accord- 
ing to business. A building may be a brick building, 
because it is made of brick. It may also be a factory, 
because things are made in it. That is its use or business. 

SECOND LESSON 

Some pupils will probably say in analyzing the second 
sentence, that wise answers the question " Is what ? " 



122 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

and that therefore wise is the object of is. This diffi- 
culty will disappear if such pupils are referred to the 
first statement about transitive verbs, which calls attention 
to the fact that transitive verbs are always action 
verbs. 

The following is suggested as a form for pupils to 
follow in analysis — oral or written. 

We hear that he is wise. 

This sentence makes a statement, therefore it is a 
declarative sentence. 

Hear is the principal statement word, therefore it is 
the main verb. 

Who or what hear ? We bear. Therefore we is the 
subject. 

Hear whom or what ] Hear that he is wise. There- 
fore that he is wise is the object. 

That he is wise contains a statement word is. It is 
therefore a clause. This clause is the object of a verb. 
It is therefore a dependent clause. 

Is is the main verb. 

Who or what is ? He is. Therefore he is the subject. 

Is is not a verb of action, and it can therefore have 
no object. 

The whole sentence is made up of an independent 

and a dependent clause. It is therefore a complex 

sentence. 

Chapter IV 

The derivation of the words mode and modify should 
be worked out with the class. 

Mode is manner. It may be manner or style of hats 
or clothes. It may be the manner of doing a thing. 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 1 23 

Modiste is a person who shapes hats or other things. 

To modify is to change the shape, use, or meaning of 
a thing. 

Modifier is that which changes shape, use, or meaning. 

Illustrations: (a) A porch changes (modifies) the 
shape of a house. 

(b) A signboard added to a private house changes 
the meaning of the house. 

(c) A feather may change the shape of a bonnet. 

(d) A crepe veil may change the meaning of a 
bonnet, making it a sign of mourning. 

By these or similar examples the idea of mode, modify, 
and modifier may be made clear. 

It may be well to recall and illustrate how words may 
be modified in form by addition of prefixes and suffixes, 
number, gender, and personal endings. Illustrate by 
Latin forms as well as by English, suggesting the 
method of forming Latin declensions and conjugations. 

Such discussions help to clarify and to give life to 
the pupil's grammatical thinking. 

A. — Pupils should be allowed to see that some words, 
commonly spoken of as adjectives, do not in a strict 
sense modify at all, — definite and indefinite articles, 
demonstrative and interrogative adjectives. These words 
are, however, all properly adjectives (from ad jecio, to 
throw against, or put with), because they go with nouns. 
Here may be illustrated the fact that common ways of 
speaking are often not exact ways. If we were exact, 
we should divide adjectives into two classes : {a) modi- 
fying; (b) demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative. This 
is done in advanced grammars. Yet for convenience 



124 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

we call these all modifiers, using the word modify in a 
loose way, as we often use the word star loosely to 
apply to all heavenly bodies (except sun and moon), 
instead of to the fixed stars only. 

The point of such discussions is to break up the com- 
placent habit of taking things for granted, to make 
pupils alert, to quicken their perceptions ; but they 
should not be used largely as a basis for examinations. 

B. Adverbial Modifiers. Second Lesson. — The fifth 
sentence in the exercise illustrates the adverbial use of 
the noun. The word home may be considered here as 
an adverb or as a part of a prepositional phrase, to /lis 
home. It is always best, however, not to introduce 
words into a sentence to assist in parsing unless it is 
absolutely necessary. ' 

The following is a simple and economical way for a 
pupil to prepare a lesson on modifiers : — 

LESSON — REVIEW OF ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB MODIFIERS 



No. OF 
Sentence 


Modifier . 


Adj. 


Adv. 


Class 


Word 


Ph. 


Cl. 


Modifies 


I 


a 


V 




article 


V 






planter 




very 




V 


degree 


V 






miserly 




miserly 


V 




descriptive 


V 






planter 




formerly 




V 


time 


V 






lived 




in the island 




V 


place 




V 




lived 




the 


V 




article 


V 






island 




of Jamaica 


V 




descriptive 




V 




island 



Chapter V 

The understanding of connectives requires an appre- 
ciation of grammatical values. This at first the pupil 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 1 25 

does not possess, and it is so clearly a difficulty by itself, 
and there is such a uniform need of special training to 
acquire it, that psychologically it may be called a fifth 
grammatical discrimination or judgment. 

That elements, having the same grammatical con- 
struction, have equal grammatical values, seems to be 
self-evident to most pupils. There is need, however, of 
much practice in seeing this coordinate relation, before 
the ^subordinate relation is taken up, that it may be 
sensed instinctively, without confusion. 

Recognition of the relative values of elements having 
different grammatical constructions is difficult. The 
poorly trained judgment at this point is perhaps the 
cause of the largest number of failures in the study of 
Latin and Greek. 

The student should thoroughly memorize the lists of 
connectives. 

A. Coordinate Conjunctions. First Lesson. — Cor- 
relatives should be thought of as one word. In the 
sentence, " Either you or I will go," the pronouns yon> /, 
are connected by the. correlatives, either — or. 

B. Subordinate Conjunctions. Third Lesson. — The 
pupil should discover inductively the fact that a sub- 
ordinate connective invariably attaches a modifier to the 
element modified. As a fish-line connects the fish with 
the pole (not the pole with the fish), and a hook connects 
the lantern with the beam (not the beam with the 
lantern), so a preposition connects its object with the 
word which the phrase modifies ; a relative pronoun 
connects the clause in which it stands with the word 
which the clause modifies {i.e. the antecedent of the 



126 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

pronoun); a subordinate conjunction connects the de- 
pendent clause with the independent. 

To find the object of a preposition use the method 
employed in finding the object of a verb. 

Grammatical construction, grammatical relation, and 
grammatical business of a word, phrase, or clause in a 
sentence are three ways of expressing the same idea. 
The term, construction, is used when the sentence is 
thought of as a structure, and the elements as part of 
the structure. The term, relation, is used when the 
sentence is thought of as an organism or family, in 
which the parts bear a relation one to the other. The 
term, business, is used when the sentence or element is 
thought of as performing some work. 

Relative Pronouns 

Many pupils will not readily distinguish between 
relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and demon- 
strative adjectives. It will be well for the teacher to 
make a number of sentences and have pupils do the 
same, illustrating these parts of speech. Spend enough 
time on this for the class to gain facility in distinguishing 
these in easy sentences. 

A variety of words is used in grammar to designate con- 
necting words. It will be profitable to study their deriva- 
tion and use, although it will be evident that there is no 
real difference in their meaning. The use of these words 
in grammar is purely arbitrary, established by custom : — 

connecting, (connective), (connection) ; 
relative, (relation), (relating) ; 
conjunctive, (conjunction); 
copula, (copulative). 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 127 

C. Connecting Verbs. ■ — The copula verbs are treated 
under connectives, because in practice it has been found 
that, taken up at this point, they are not a disturbing 
factor in the preceding study, and the difficulties inherent 
in the subject itself seem largely to disappear. 

Analysis 

The tendency to assign to children involved sentences 
for analyzing should be avoided. It is important that 
the clear and simple relations be quickly and accurately 
perceived. The more complex work belongs to maturer 
minds. Simple sentences, containing not more than 
three simple phrases, compound and complex sentences 
of two members or clauses, present ample difficulties 
for grammar school children. 

PART II 
Chapter I 

FIRST LESSON 

A study of the derivation and use of the terms, in- 
flection, declension, comparison, conjugation, should be 
made. 

It is important for the pupils to see clearly the connec- 
tion between the ideas of Part I and those of Part II. 

In some languages a change in form always occurs 
with a change of relation. 

" The primitive Indo-European language had eight 
cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and three 
numbers, three voices, and many tenses for verbs. A 
great reduction in the number of inflectional forms 
occurred before English was evolved, yet in early Eng- 



128 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

lish nouns had four cases." (" A Rational Grammar of 
the English Language," Powell and Connolly.) 

" In some languages the constructions of words are 
shown to a great extent by means of inflections. Thus 
in Latin lapis means a stone ; lapidis, of a stone ; 
lapide, with a stone; lapidutn, of stones, and so on." 
The word lapis, it will be seen, shows its use or rela- 
tion in a sentence by its form. " English was formerly 
rich in such inflections, but most of these inflection 
forms have been lost, so that in modern English the 
construction of many words has to be shown either by 
their order or by the use of various little words, such as 
of, with, etc." ("The Mother Tongue," Kittredge and 
Arnold), or yet more often by the general sense of the 
sentence. 

The English language has progressed farther than 
any other in ridding itself of the limitations of form. 
The Chinese language is perhaps most dependent upon 
form, although it is said that some North American 
Indian and African languages are also very complex 
in their inflections. 

SECOND LESSON 

The author believes it is a waste of time to learn rules 
for the formation of the plural. Have a good deal of 
practice in using plural forms. 

THIRD LESSON 

Nouns and pronouns, only when they are used to 
indicate possession, have a distinct form to show the 
modifying relation. The (') in the possessive case indi- 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 129 

cates the omission of e or i in an old possessive ending. 
" In older English the genitive (possessive) of most 
nouns was written as well as pronounced with the end- 
ing es or is. Thus in Chaucer the genitive of child is 
childes or childi's ; that of king is kinges or kingi's ; that 
of John is Johnes or Johni's. The use of the apostro- 
phe in the genitive is a comparatively modern device. " 
("The Mother Tongue," Kittredge and Arnold.) 

A noun in apposition with another noun and a predi- 
cate nominative are in the modifying relation, but with- 
out any peculiar form to show it. 

Notice that the nominative plural must always be 
found before an attempt is made to form the possessive 
plural. 

SEVENTH LESSON 

By discussion with the class make clear the difference 
between grammatical gender and sex. Sex has to do 
with persons, and gender has to do with words (nouns 
and pronouns). 

In Latin gender of nouns has little connection with 
the sex of the object that the noun stands for. Mons, 
mountain, is masculine ; insula, island, is feminine ; ani- 
mal, animal, is neuter. 

In German the gender of nouns has still less connec- 
tion with the sex of the object for which the noun 
stands. Weib, woman, is neuter ; nacht, night, is femi- 
nine ; mdnchen, little man, is neuter, although mann, 
man, is masculine. 

In the English language, grammatical gender (word 
gender) existed in early times without regard to sex. 
Freodom, freedom, was masculine ; gretnig, greeting, 

K 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



was feminine; cicen, chicken, was neuter. Now, how- 
ever, the gender of words corresponds with the sex of 
the objects which the nouns represent. 

EIGHTH LESSON 

Take time to work out with the class a statement of 
all the grammatical points of the nouns in the trial sen- 
tence, and then allow them to express their judgments 
as to a good order to follow in parsing future nouns. 

The following order is logical : — 



i. Kind 



2. Gender 



3. Number 



4. Person 



5. Use 



6. Case 



f Common 

y Proper 
Masculine 
Feminine 
Neuter 
Common 

'{ Singular 



Plural 



[ First 
\ Second 
[ Third 
( Subject 
j Object 
I Modifier 

f Nominative 

1 

j Objective 



I Possessive 

Abstract and collective nouns are subdivisions of 
common nouns. 

Chapter II 

FOURTEENTH LESSON 

Following the method of the Eighth Lesson in Chap- 
ter I, the following may be worked out as a good order 
in parsing pronouns : — 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 



131 



1. Kind 



Antecedent 

Gender 

Number 

Person 

Use (if relative 

it connects) 
Case 



r Personal 
Relative 
Interrogative 
Demonstrative 



same as nouns 



The person, gender, number, of a pronoun is the same 
as the person, gender, number, of its antecedent. The 
case of a pronoun depends upon its use in the sentence. 



Chapter III 

SIXTH LESSON 

A common plan for parsing adjectives is: — 



1. Kind 



2. Degree 



3. Use 



' Proper 

Demonstrative 
- Relative 

Interrogative 
, Descriptive 
( Positive 
\ Comparative 
I Superlative 
( Predicate 
j Conjunctive 
I Simple Modifier 



EIGHTH LESSON 

A common plan for parsing adverbs is : — - 

r Ordinary 
1. Kind J Interrogative 

l Relative 



132 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

{ Positive 
2. Degree \ Comparative 



TJ f Conjunctive 



Superlative 
Conjunctive 
[ Simple Modifier 



Chapter IV 

FIRST LESSON 

It will be found that it is most economical in the end 
to have pupils learn thoroughly the conjugations of the 
verbs here given. They should also be able to give 
synopses in different persons and numbers. 

SECOND LESSON 

The irregular verbs 'are the oldest in^the language. 
They are sometimes called strong verbs, perhaps be- 
cause they have greater strength than the regular verbs 
have in being able to suffer internal changes. 

In the English language the verb has three princi- 
pal parts — present tense, love ; past tense, loved ; past 
participle, loved. In the German language the verb 
has three principal parts — present infinitive, lieben ; 
past tense, liebete ; past participle, geliebt. In French 
there are five parts of the verb — present infinitive, 
aimer; present participle, aimant ; past participle, 
aime; present indicative, faime; past indicative, 
j'aimai. The Latin has four principal parts — present 
indicative, amo ; present infinitive, amare ; past indica- 
tive, amavi ; past participle, amattcm. The Greek has 
six principal parts — present indicative, (fnXeco; future 
indicative, (fycX^aco; aorist active, efyiXrjaa; perfect 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 1 33 

active, ire^lXrjKa ; perfect passive, ire^iX^^at , aorist 
passive, icfrtXrjOrjv. 

THIRD LESSON 

It may be well to call attention to the fact that while 
with nouns s is in general the sign of the plural num- 
ber, with verbs s is the sign of the singular number. 

FOURTH LESSON 

To gain facility in the making of compound tenses, 
the parts of the irregular verbs should be mastered. 
Have a good deal of informal practice in changing one 
form of a verb to different persons and numbers in dif- 
ferent tenses, simple and compound. 

FIFTH LESSON 

Mode is variously treated by grammarians. The po- 
tential mode is now quite generally dropped. The verb 
in the expression, " I must (may, can, might, could, 
would, should) go," is made of the verb must, which 
makes a declaration and is, therefore, in the indicative 
mode, and the infinitive to go, the preposition being 
omitted. From the standpoint of mode the expression, 
" I must go," differs in no way from the expression, " I 
wish to go," both being indicative. If, however, the 
sentence conveys a suggestion of doubt, as in, " If I 
must go, I will try to be resigned," the verb must is to 
be considered as in the subjunctive mode. 

In dealing with the future tenses and the so-called 
potential mode forms, it appears that we may follow 
one of three courses. 



134 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

1st. They may be left unanalyzed. Allow pupils to 
say that shall go is the future tense, that may go is the 
present potential, etc., and let the matter drop. This 
has been the general custom up to the present time. 

2d. Governed to a degree by the custom of the past, 
we may say that shall, will, do, may, can, must, might, 
could, zvould, should, are auxiliary verbs, completed by the 
infinitive of the main verb, to being omitted. The 
second is the course followed in this book. 

yl. Influenced by the close grammatical likeness 
between the future tense forms and the potential mode ' 
forms in such expressions as, "I wish to go," "The 
man tried to buy a horse," etc., we may consider all 
verbs that are accompanied by the infinitive in this way 
as main verbs, incomplete, completed by,, the infinitive. 
This plan will limit the auxiliary verbs to be and have. 

The subjunctive mode is a subject that receives varied 
treatment at the hands of grammarians. All agree that 
it is the mode of doubt. This idea of doubt or uncer- 
tainty is the distinguishing characteristic of this mode 
in all languages. In the English language the subjunc- 
tive forms seem to have become almost entirely obsolete. 

In the treatment of this mode we seem again to have 
three courses open to us. 

ist. Because the subjunctive forms are no longer 
used, conclude that the mode itself is obsolete, and dis- 
card it entirely. 

2d. Assume that, as long as there are expressions 
involving doubt, the subjunctive mode cannot become 
obsolete, and try to restore in ordinary language the use 
of the subjunctive forms. 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 1 35 

$d. Accept the facts of language as we find them. 
Discard the peculiarly subjunctive forms, as it has been 
seen that many case, number, and mode forms have 
been discarded. Keep the subjunctive mode, accepting 
in our science of language for that mode, the forms that 
we find in actual use, namely, the indicative forms. 

The third is the course pursued in this book. The 
old subjunctive forms have been put in parentheses in 
the paradigms. 

It must be admitted that those who make an effort 
to use language well do retain here and there a subjunc- 
tive form. For example, such a one would probably 
say, " If John were studious, he would learn." Although 
the expression, " If John zvas studious, he would learn," 
attracts to-day less unfavorable comment than formerly. 

No one would think of saying, " If it rain, you must 
not go." 

These illustrations indicate the unsettled condition of 
the English language in the grammar of verbs. It will 
not be profitable to go far into these discussions with 
the class. It is important, however, that they should 
not consider as fixed those things that are yet unsettled. 

EIGHTH LESSON 

The infinitive is used not uncommonly in a rather 
peculiar construction, which the following sentences illus- 
trate : — 

1. The teacher made him leave the school. 

2. The pupil had permission to go home. 

3. His father had many things to say to him. 

The average pupil may see nothing in these sentences 
but illustrations of two objects of the main verb, one 



136 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR r 

object being an infinitive. Other pupils may object to 
this conclusion. If no question is raised, it will prob- 
ably be as well not to force the point. But the common 
way of disposing of such constructions is to consider that 
the infinitive takes a subject in the objective case; him 
being the subject of (to) leave, permission being the 
subject of to go, and things being the subject of to say. 

This suggests the Latin infinitive with subject accusa- 
tive construction. 



THIRTEENTH LESSON 



The following is an order commonly followed in pars- 
ing verbs : — 

1. Kind, as to form 



2. Kind, as to meaning 



3. Voice 



4. Mode 



5. Tense 



6. Person . 



7. Number 



8. Use. 



J Regular 

[ Irregular 

f Transitive 

[ Intransitive 

f Active 
Passive 
Indicative 
Subjunctive 
Imperative 
Infinitive 

f Present 

j Past 

I Future 

f First 

\ Second 

I Third 

f Singular 

{ Plural 

f Main Verb 
Subject 
Object 
Modifier 



J Adjective 
[ Adverb 



NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 1 37 

In parsing verbs or other parts of speech, it is more 
logical to give the reason for a judgment before pro- 
nouncing the judgment. For example, in the sentence, 
"The horse ran away," it is better for pupils to say, 
"Horse stands for one animal and is therefore in the 
singular number," etc. The subject of ran is horse. 
Therefore ran is in the third person, singular num- 
ber," etc. 



APPENDIX 

Exercises arranged for drill on the principles of Part I. — also suitable 
for analysis and parsing. 

Arranged for practice in phrasing and punctuating. 



THE FOX AND THE GOAT 

A fox had fallen into a well he tried to get out but could not 
soon a goat came along for water to drink the fox spoke to 
him and urged him to come down where the water was very 
good the goat said is there enough for two the fox replied there 
is plenty and enough to spare of the purest kind the goat 
foolishly jumped in then the fox leaped on his the goat's back 
and so out of the well leaving the goat to his fate the fox as he 
trotted off said if you had half as much brains as beard you 
would look before you leap. 

zenobia's ambition 

I am charged with pride and ambition the charge is true 
whoever achieved anything great in letters arts or arms who 
was not ambitious Caesar was not more ambitious than Cicero 
it was but in another way all greatness is born of ambition let 
the ambition be a noble one and who shall blame it I confess I 
did once aspire to be queen now that I am I aspire to remain 
so is it not an honorable ambition does it not become a 
descendant of the Ptolemies and of Cleopatra I am applauded 
by you all for what I have already done you would not it 
should have been less. 

i39 



140 LESSON'S IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

SCROOGE 

Oh but he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone Scrooge 
he was a squeezing wrenching grasping scraping clutching 
covetous old sinner hard and sharp as flint from which no steel 
had ever struck out generous fire secret and self-contained and 
solitary as an oyster the cold within him froze his old features 
nipped his pointed nose shrivelled his cheeks made his eyes 
red his thin lips blue a frosty rime was on his head and on his 
eyebrows and his wiry chin he carried his own low temperature 
about with him he iced his coffee in dog days and didn't thaw 
it one degree at Christmas. 

Arranged for practice in selecting the main verb. 

IN DECLARATIVE SENTENCES 

i. Farmers raise vegetables and cereals. 

2. The teacher sounded the keynote. r 

3. The sailors left them on the shore. 

4. Cuckoos lay their eggs in the nests of other birds. 

5. The children followed us to the woods. 

6. Albert brought his books to school. 

7. Our earth rotates on its axis. 

8. Lincoln was elected President of the United States. 

9. General Grant has gained the victory. 
10. The horse did not eat his oats. 

n. The Pyramids of Egypt have stood thousands of years. 

12. Neither the time nor the place of Homer's birth is 
known. 

13. I have just received the picture which you sent me. 

14. The man did not want to go. 

15. You might ask for information if you were ignorant. 

INVERTED ORDER 

i. Great oaks from little acorns grow. 

2. Under a spreading chestnut tree the village smithy stands. 



APPENDIX 141 

3. Across its antique portico 

Tall poplar trees their shadows throw. 

4. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. 

5. On the old stone a hot fire burned. 

6. Beside the ink-well, on the desk, lies the knife. 

7. Over the harvest fields forsaken, descends the snow. 

8. Deep in the earth the tiny seeds were planted. 

9. Judge individuals from your own knowledge of them. 
10. Did Diogenes live in a tub? 

n. A wind came up out of the sea, 

And said, " O mists, make room for me." 

12. It said unto the forest, " Shout ! 
Hang all your leafy banners out ! " 

13. It touched the wood-bird's folded wing, 
And said, " O bird, awake and sing." 

14. It whispered to the fields of corn, 

" Bow down and hail the coming morn." 

15. It shouted through the belfry- tower, 

" Awake, O bell ! proclaim the hour." 

Arranged for practice in selecting the subject. 

1. They captured a bear. 

2. Ice melts under the heat from the sun. 

3. The striking of the clock disturbed him. 

4. What he says always proves true. 

5. To know when to jump required judgment. 

6. Growling and snarling show anger. 

7. Sandstone consists of small grains of sand. 

8. They show a rounded and worn appearance. 

9. To avoid wrong is a difficult task. 

10. Who wins the race shall wear the crown. 

11. Running and jumping strengthen the body. 

12. To steer a ship requires skill. 

13. Speak the truth, was written on the board. 



142 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

14. How we are to succeed remains a mystery. 

15, "Paul Revere's Ride " was recited. 

INVERTED ORDER 

i. Solemnly down the street came the parish priest. 

2. On the side of a hill commanding the sea stood the 
house. 

3. Anon from the belfry softly the Angelus sounded. 

4. In accents disconsolate answers the wail of the forest. 

5. Strongly built were the houses of hemlock. 

6. While through the night were heard the mysterious 
sounds of the desert. 

7. Through those shadowy aisles had Gabriel wandered 
before her. 

8. Cheered by the good man's words, Evangeline labored 
and waited. 

9. Sow an act of kindness and you reap^a habit; sow a 
habit and you reap a character ; sow a character and you reap 
a destiny. 

10. Sometimes on lonely mountain-meres 

I find a magic bark. 

11 - I leap on board, no helmsman steers ; 

I float till all is dark. 

12 A gentle sound, an awful light ! 
Three angels bear the Holy Grail. 

13. With folded feet, in stoles of white, 
On sleeping wings they sail. 

14. Ah, blessed vision ! blood of God ! 
My spirit beats her mortal bars, 

15. As down dark tides the glory slides, 
And star-like mingles with the stars. 

Arranged for practice in selecting the object. 

1. Margaret baked the cake. 

2. She baked it too much. 



APPENDIX 143 

3. Fish like clean water. 

4. Healthy people enjoy walking. 

5. Crayfish like to hide themselves. 

6. Music has charms to soothe the savage breast. 

7. Boys enjoy flying kites. 

8. Wild ambition loves to slide, not stand. 

9. She recited " Curfew shall not ring to-night." 

10. We know what we have learned. 

11. The slaves learned that Lincoln freed them. 

12. We all know where the pussy-willow grows. 

13. Read much, but not too many books. 

14. He, who has not truth, has no good quality. 

15. I do not know anything about the matter. 

INVERTED ORDER 

i. As night to stars, woe lustre gives to man. 

2. Across its antique portico, 

Tall poplar trees their shadows throw. 

3. Then by a stream the roof of a cottage he saw. 

4. In the treetops the robins like to build their nests. 

5. Out, out across the lake, the people watched him. 

6. Come, let us plant the apple tree. 

7. Cleave the tough greensward with the spade. 

8. Wide let its hollow bed be made. 

9. There gently lay the roots, and there sift the dark mould 
with kindly care. 

10. And the forests, dark and lonely, 
Sighed, " Farewell, O Hiawatha ! " 

11. The charm that resides in pure health all may have. 

12. Beauty few possess. 

13. The woods we admire in the fall. 

14. " May I go now? " asked she. 

15. To learn to walk the child must be taught. 



144 LESSONS IJV ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Arranged for practice in selecting adjective modifiers. 

i. Tall trees grow from little acorns. 

2. Waving flags, roaring cannon, and prancing horses 
remind us that the day is here. 

3. It is not necessary that every one should read all the 
good books within his grasp. 

4. All foreigners coming to this country are called immi- 
grants. 

5. John's books are in Alfred's desk. 

6. Washington, the general, was respected by the enemy. 

7. I will point out the man who called you, 

8. The blossom of a pumpkin has an orange color. 

9. The groom taught the boy the way to ride. 

10. A prism makes beautiful colors. 

11. The boy, who looks after the sheep, has a dog. 

12. They never fail who die in a just cause. 

13. Those, that govern their tongues, dcrwell. 

14. The barn owl has perfect disks of feathers around his 
eyes. 

15. The breaking waves dashed high, 

On a stern and rock-bound coast. 

Arranged for practice in selecting adverbial modifiers. 

OF VERBS 

1. Buds live outdoors all winter. 

2. They swell with new life in the spring. 

3. A poor woman went out to work during the day. 

4. The snow will come soon. 

5. In the spring the Pilgrims planted their seed. 

6. Steel is attracted by a magnet. 

7. Merrily, with oft-repeated stroke, sounds the flail. 

8. The audience laughed long and heartily. 

9. The engineer reversed the engine lever because he saw 
the danger signal. 



APPENDIX 145 

10. Quietly the panther treads and makes no noise in its 
moving. 

11. The senator left his chair to avoid the draft. 

12. On sunny slope and beechen swell 
The shadowed light of evening fell. 

13. He wrapped her warm in his seaman's coat 

Against the stinging blast. 

14. He cut a rope from a broken spar — 

And bound her to the mast. 

15. Look before you leap. 

OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 

i. A blood orange has a very sweet taste. 

2. Some people possess an exceedingly charitable dispo- 
sition. 

3. Some houses are built too small for comfort. 

4. She sings too loud. 

5. The earth revolves very rapidly. 

6. Wild animals enjoy far more liberty than domesticated 
ones. 

,7. I would rather be right than be President. 

8. She, too weary to proceed, remained in the mountains. 

9. The birds act very strangely, but they sing so sweetly. 

10. The eagle is much larger than the hawk. 

11. The slave had noticed a rather old lamp on Aladdin's 
shelf. 

12. The magician proved to be an utterly bad man. 

13. A strangely beautiful sunset met our gaze. 

14. Some people move far too rapidly when walking. 

15. The wind passed over the gently waving corn. 

Arranged for practice in selecting coordinate con- 
junctions. 

1. We have large and ripe apples. 

2. He walked and ran to the station. 

L 



146 LESSOIVS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

3. Will our friends come, or shall we go? 

4. Either you or I must remain. 

5. The rains flooded neither the meadows nor pastures. 

6. He had poor but honest parents. 

7. The beasts were neither large nor fierce. 

8. To be or not to be is an important question. 

9. Both heroes and heroines were prominent in the story. 

10. The lion chased and caught his prey. 

11. You must govern your tongue, or lose your power over 
others. 

12. The farmer bought a horse but he was cheated. 

13. Titus both captured and destroyed Jerusalem. 

14. Send Thomas a knife and he will sharpen his pencil. 

15. Noble souls, through dust and heat, 
Rise from disaster and defeat. 

Arranged for practice in selecting subordinate con- 
junctions. 

1. The apples will decay unless they are picked soon. 

2. Speak gently unless you wish to be disliked. 

3. Unless we try we will not succeed. 

4.' The earth would not rotate unless there was a cause. 

5. A force drives it although we do not see it. 

6. I will go with you lest you miss the road. 

7. Give wisely lest you be thought penurious. 

8. Change your wet clothes lest you take cold. 

9. I will be truthful though it does not seem to pay. 

10. A lieutenant is one degree lower than a captain. 

11. They have larger trees in California than in the east. 

12. I would rather be right than be President. 

13. Contentment is far better than riches. 

14. The sun is brighter than the moon. 

15. It is better to write well than to write swiftly. 

16. He refused to tell that his father had gone. 

17. Stay awhile that we may enjoy ourselves. 



APPENDIX 147 

18. Ask me no questions that I may tell you no lies. 

19. We believe that our work is improving. 

20. The sun shines that we may have light. 

2 1 . We generally succeed if we try. 

22. I will help you if you will come here. 

23. Come in if you wish to. 

24. If at first you don't succeed, try, try again. 

25. If the earth should stop revolving what would happen? 

Arranged for practice in selecting relative pronouns. 

1. Lincoln, who was our sixteenth President, was called 
the saviour of his country. 

2. Men, who do not try, do not succeed. 

3. Heaven helps those who help themselves. 

4. They are never alone who are accompanied with noble 
thoughts. 

5. Solomon, who built the temple at Jerusalem, was the 
richest monarch of his age. 

6. The book, whose leaves were torn, belonged to the town. 

7. We tell our thoughts to those of whose love we are sure. 

8. We bathed in the Great Salt Lake, whose waters floated 
us like corks. 

9. Henry Clay was the man whom the people called a 
peacemaker. 

10. He, whom his country loved, died at Mount Vernon. 

11. The people, whom we met, were foreigners. 

12. The shot, which killed Lincoln, was fired by Booth. 

13. Boston is the city in which Franklin was born. 

14. We saw the pictures which were on exhibition. 

15. The sailor gave his life for the country which he loved. 

16. We often crave what is not good for us. 

17. Freedom is what our forefathers demanded. 

18. Jackson spoke what he thought. 

19. 'Tis distance that lends enchantment to the view. 

20. Quebec is a city that is situated on a high bluff. 



148 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

21. A farmer, that uses good judgment, can earn a good 
living. 

22. Pleasure is the rock upon which most young people split. 

23. Robert had an uncle who was a captain. 

24. He that resolves to mend to-morrow, resolves not to 
mend at all. 

25. Judge of others what you would like them to judge of you. 

Arranged for practice in selecting copula verbs. 

1. He was a good boy. 

2. The letter will be long. 

3. The sky looks blue. 

4. James Watt was the great improver of the steam engine. 

5. The clouds look black. 

6. You seem tired. 

7. The children appear happy. 

8. Lack of attention is either folly or madness. 

9. i\n ignorant person has appeared in all times insignificant 
and contemptible. 

10. Not to progress is to retrograde. 

11. If I were she, I would improve my opportunities. 

12. Do you think it was he? 

13. Boys become men before they realize it. 

14. Beauty and folly often become dangerous companions. 

15. Distrust and caution are the parents of security. 

Miscellaneous sentences and selections for analysis 
and parsing. 

1. To know a little of anything gives neither satisfaction 
nor credit. 

2. You must be respectable if you would be respected. 

3. The knowledge of mankind is a very useful kind of 
knowledge for everybody. 

4. Most people have ears, but few have judgment. 

5. Pleasure is the rock upon which most young people split. 



APPENDIX 



149 



6. When knaves fall out honest men get their goods. 

7. He that riseth late must trot all day to overtake his 
business. 

8. Eat few suppers and you'll need few medicines. 

9. If you'd be beloved make yourself amiable. 

10. Beware little expenses, because a small leak will sink a 
great ship. 

11. Good manners make society easy and pleasing. 

12. Good sense must in many cases determine good breeding. 

13. Judge individuals from your own knowledge of them, 
not from their sex, profession, or religion. 

14. Beautiful birds are found in South America. 

15. This coral grew in the Indian Ocean. 

16. During the week they talked about the voyage. 

17. George hoped that he could go to Africa. 

18. The business of oratory is to persuade people. 

19. You easily feel that to please people is a great step 
toward persuading them. 

20. Without attention, all the time that you employ at your 
books is thrown away. 

THE LARKS AND THE FARMER 

A young lark once, had her nest in a large wheat field. 
Every day she flew off to find good food for her young. On 
this day that I mention the gray-haired farmer came into his 
large field. 

" I must cut this ripe wheat," he said. " I will get all my 
friends to help me." When the lark, who was tired with her 
long flight, came home, the little birds told about the farmer. 
" If he said that, we can stay here yet longer," said she. 

After a short time the farmer came again. " My friends, on 
whom I depended, have not come," said he ; "I will go to my 
three cousins in the village, and get them to help me." That 
night the little larks said, " O mother ! the old farmer has gone 
for his cousins that live in the village." 



150 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

In a few days the impatient farmer came back. His good 
ripe wheat was beginning to spoil. " I will cut this field of 
wheat myself in the morning," he muttered. Then the lark 
knew that she must find a new home. 

If wisdom's ways you'd wisely seek, 

Five things observe with care : 
Of whom you speak, to whom you speak, 

And how, and when, and where. 

BIRD THOUGHTS 

I lived first in a little house, 

And lived there very well. 
I thought the world .jvas small and round, 

And made of pale blue shell. 

I lived next in, a little nest, 

Nor wanted any other, 
I thought the world was made of straw. 

And brooded by my mother. 

One day I fluttered from the nest 

To see what I could find. 
I said, u The world is made of leaves, 

I have been very blind." 

At last I flew beyond the tree, 

Quite fit for grown-up labors, 
I don't know how the world is made, 

And neither do my neighbors. 

THE BROOK 

I chatter over stony ways 

In little sharps and trebles. 
I bubble into eddying bays, 

I babble on the pebbles. 



APPENDIX 151 

With many a curve my banks I fret, 

By many a field and fallow, 
And many a fairy foreland set 

With willow weed and mallow. 

I chatter, chatter, as I flow 

To join the brimming river, 
For men may come, and men may go, 

But I go on forever. 



INDEX 



Abstract nouns, 130. 
Active voice, 91. 
Adjective, 24-27. 

clause, 24, 25. 

comparison of, 74-78. 

declension of, 78. 

demonstrative, 25, 26. 

descriptive, 25, 26. 

indefinite, 25, 26. 

interrogative, 25, 26. 

numeral, 25, 26. 

parsing of, 79, 131. 

participial, 25, 27, 95. 

phrase, 25. 

"predicate, 44. 

relative, 43. 

review of, 33. 
Adverb, 28-33, 39- 

clause, 28, 29. 

comparison of, 80. 

of cause, 28, 32. 

of degree, 28, 31, 32. 

of manner, 28, 32. 

of negation, 29. 

of place, 28, 32. 

of time, 28, 32. 

parsing of, 82, 131, 132. 

phrase, 28, 29, 30, 31. 

relative, 43. 

review, ^. 

use of, 28, 29, 30, 31, 95. 
Agreement, 

of adjective with noun, 78. 

of verb with subject, 87. 



Analysis, 48, 53, 122, 127. 

Antecedent, 41. 

Apposition, 25. 

Articles, 25. 

Auxiliaries, 89, 92, 94, 97, 98. 

Be, 

as auxiliary, 92, 96, 98. 
as copula, 44. 
conjugation of, 101, 102. 

Case, 54. 

nominative, 44, 54, 55, 56, 64. 

objective, 54, 55, 64. 

possessive, 54, 55, 57, 64, 128, 
129. 
Classification, 121. 

of clauses, 116. 

of phrases, 116. 
Clause, 

adjective, 24, 25, 27, 41. 

adverbial, 28-31. 

dependent (subordinate), 37, 41. 

independent (coordinate), ^y f 
41. 

main (principal), 37. 

noun, 14, 19. 

object, 19. 

subject, 14. 
Collective noun, 130. 
Comparison, 

of adjectives, 74-78. 

of adverbs, 80. 
Conjugation, 83-111. 

153 



154 



INDEX 



Conjunction, 

coordinate, 34, 35, 36, 125. 

parsing of, 36. 

subordinate, 35, 36, 37, 125. 
Connective relation, 34-53, 124. 

review, 46-48. 
Copula verb, 44, 45, 64. 

Declension, 54-73. 

of demonstrative pronouns, 71, 72. 

of interrogative pronouns, 70. 

of nouns, 54-62. 

of personal pronouns, 63. 

of relative pronouns, 67. 

Elliptical clauses, 36. 

Gender, 60, 129. 

common, 61. 

feminine, 61. 

masculine, 60. 

neuter, 61. 
Gerund, 15. 

Have, 

as auxiliary, 89, 96, 98. 
conjugation of, 98-102. 

Inflection, 127, 128. 
Inverted order, 19. 

Love, 

conjugation of, 83, 88, 89. 

Mistakes in use of, 
adjectives, 78, 79. 
adverbs, 81. 

interrogative pronouns, 71. 
personal pronouns, 66. 
possessive case, 59. 
relative pronouns, 69. 
verbs, 103. 



Mode, i33-!35- 
imperative, 90. 
indicative, 90. 
infinitive, 90, 94, 97, 135. 
subjunctive, 90, 

Modifying relation, 24-33, I22 > I2 4- 
review of, 46-48. 



M 



Nouns, 54-62. 

collective, 130. 

declension of, 54-62. 

parsing of, 62, 130. 

verbal, 15. 
Number, 

of nouns, 55, 56, 128, 133. 

of verbs, 133. 

Object relation, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 38, 

39, 64, 95, 120. 
Order of words in sentence, 19, 

119. 

Participles, 

past, 95, 96. 

present, 95, 96. 

use of, 27, 95, 96. 
Passive voice, 91, 92. 
Person, 61, 62. 
Phrase, 6, 7, 58. 

adjective, 24, 25, 58. 

adverbial, 28-30. 

infinitive, 6, 7, 15. 

noun, 15, 18, 19. 

object, 19. 

participial, 6, 7, 27. 

prepositional, 27, 38, 39, 58. 

subject, 14. 

verb, 10. 
Phrasing, I, 2, 3, 14. 
Predicate, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 15, 23. 

adjective, 44. 

nominative, 44. 



INDEX 



155 



Preposition, 27, 38, 39. 

parsing of, 38. 

use of, 38, 39. 
Principal parts, 84, 132. 
Pronouns, 63-73. 

declension of, 63-73. 

demonstrative, 71, 72. 

interrogative, 70, 120. 

parsing of, 72, 130, 131. 

personal, 63, 120. 

relative, 40-42, 67, 120, 126. 

use of, 63-71. 
Punctuation, 4, 5. 

Reviews, 

of connectives, 46-48. 
of inflections, 105-108. 
of main verb, 21-23. 
of modifiers, 46-48. 
of object, 21-23. 
of subject, 21-23. 

Selections for analysis and parsing, 

I39-I5 1 - 
Sentence, 116, 121. 

complex, 9, 10, 35, 37, 40-43- 
compound, 9, 10, 34, 35. 
declarative, 10, 1 1. 
exclamatory, 10, 11. 
imperative, io v ii. 



Sentence, 

interrogative, 10, 11. 
Subject relation, 12, 13, 14, 15, 64, 
118. 

Tense, 

compound (perfect), 88, 89, 133. 

future, 88. 

past, 88. 

present, 87. 

simple, 88. 
Than, 36. 

Verb, 8, 9, 10, 11. 

agreement with subject, 8j. 

auxiliary, 97, 98. 

conjugation, 83-1 1 1. 

copulative, 44, 45. 

parsing of, 104, 105, 136. 

phrase, 6, 7. 

predicate, 8-1 1, 15, 23, 117, 118. 

principal (main), 8-1 1, 15, 23, 97, 
117, 118. 

principal parts, 132. 
irregular, 85-87, 132. 
regular, 84, 85. 

review, 21-23. 

transitive, 17, 122. 

use of, 6, 7, 8-1 1, 15, 23, 27, 94. 
Verbal noun, 15. 



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